Garrett Hardin#Controversies
{{Short description|American ecologist (1915–2003)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Garrett Hardin
| image = Garrett Hardin.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| caption = Garrett Hardin (1986)
| birth_name = Garrett James Hardin
| birth_date = April 21, 1915
| birth_place = Dallas, Texas, U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|mf=yes|2003|9|14|1915|8|21}}
| death_place = Santa Barbara, California, U.S.
| residence =
| field = Ecology
| work_institutions =
| alma_mater = University of Chicago (BS)
Stanford University (PhD)
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = "The Tragedy of the Commons" (essay)
| author_abbrev_bot =
| author_abbrev_zoo =
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards =
| footnotes =
| signature =
}}
Garrett James Hardin (April 21, 1915 – September 14, 2003) was an American ecologist and microbiologist. He focused his career on the issue of human overpopulation, and is best known for his exposition of the tragedy of the commons in a 1968 paper of the same title in Science,{{cite journal |last=Locher |first=Fabien |date=August 19, 2013 |title=Cold War Pastures: Garrett Hardin and the 'Tragedy of the Commons' |url=https://www.cairn-int.info/abstract-E_RHMC_601_0007--cold-war-pastures-garrett-hardin-and.htm?contenu=article |journal=Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=7–36 |doi=10.3917/rhmc.601.0007 |issn=0048-8003|doi-access=free }}{{cite web |date=January 5, 2018 |title=Debunking the Tragedy of the Commons |url=https://news.cnrs.fr/opinions/debunking-the-tragedy-of-the-commons |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=CNRS News |publisher=French National Center for Scientific Research |quote=In December 1968, the American biologist Garrett Hardin (1915–2003) published one of the most influential articles in the history of environmental thought. ... The concept was soon being widely cited in academic circles, as well as by journalists, ecologists, government authorities and politicians. Many saw it as a scientific justification for the state control or (more often) the privatization of resources and ecosystems. Today, our historical perspective and improved understanding show this line of thinking for what it is: a misconception with no concrete basis, skewed by a highly ideological perception of social systems.}} which called attention to "the damage that innocent actions by individuals can inflict on the environment". He is also known for Hardin's First Law of Human Ecology:{{Cite journal |last1=Odozor |first1=Chidi |last2=Odeku |first2=Kola O. |date=February 2014 |title=Explaining the Similarities and Differences between Climate Law and Environmental Law |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2014.11906686 |journal=Journal of Human Ecology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=127–136 |doi=10.1080/09709274.2014.11906686 |issn=0970-9274|url-access=subscription }} "We can never do merely one thing. Any intrusion into nature has numerous effects, many of which are unpredictable."{{cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=Garrett |title=Hardin, Garrett. "The cybernetics of competition: A biologist's view of society |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |date=1963 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=80 |doi=10.1353/pbm.1963.0034 |pmid=14070000 |s2cid=9236063 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/405968/summary |access-date=14 December 2020|url-access=subscription }}{{rp|112}}
Hardin held hardline anti-immigrant positions as well as positions on eugenics and multiethnicism that have led multiple sources to label him a white nationalist. The Southern Poverty Law Center described his publications as "frank in their racism and quasi-fascist ethnonationalism".{{cite magazine |last=Biss|first=Eula|date=8 June 2022|title=The Theft of the Commons|url=https://www.newyorker.com/culture/essay/the-theft-of-the-commons|magazine=The New Yorker|location= |access-date=13 June 2022}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/garrett-hardin |title=Garrett Hardin |website=Southern Poverty Law Center |language=en |access-date=July 20, 2018}}
{{cite web
| last1 = Mildenberger | first1 = Matto
| title = The tragedy of the tragedy of the commons
| date = 23 April 2019
| work = Scientific American Blog Network
| url = https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/the-tragedy-of-the-tragedy-of-the-commons/
| access-date = 2020-07-22
}}{{Cite news|last=Abegglen|first=Martin|date=26 September 2019|title=First as Tragedy, Then as Fascism|work=The Baffler|url=https://thebaffler.com/latest/first-as-tragedy-then-as-fascism-amend}}{{Cite news|last=Nijhuis|first=Michelle|date=4 May 2021|title=The miracle of the commons|work=Aeon|url=https://aeon.co/essays/the-tragedy-of-the-commons-is-a-false-and-dangerous-myth}}
Biography
Hardin received a BS in zoology from the University of Chicago in 1936 and a PhD in microbiology from Stanford University in 1941 where his dissertation research addressed symbiosis among microorganisms.{{Cite journal |last=Hardin |first=Garrett |date=July 1, 1944 |title=Symbiosis of Paramecium and Oikomonas |journal=Ecology |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=304–311 |doi=10.2307/1931278 |issn=1939-9170|jstor=1931278 |bibcode=1944Ecol...25..304H }} Moving to the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1946, he served there as Professor of Human Ecology from 1963 until his (nominal) retirement in 1978. He was among the first members of the Society for General Systems Research.
Major works and positions
A major focus of his career, and one to which he returned repeatedly, was the issue of human overpopulation. This led to writings on controversial subjects such as advocating abortion rights,{{cite book |last=Hardin |first=Garrett |title=Stalking the Wild Taboo |publisher=William Kaufmann, Inc. |date=1973 |pages=3–9 |chapter=Chapter 1: I Become an Abortionist |isbn=978-0913232033}} which earned him criticism from the political right, and advocating strict limits to all immigration, which earned him criticism from the political left. In his essays, he also tackled subjects such as conservation{{cite book |last=Hardin |first=Garrett |title=Naked Emperors |publisher=William Kaufmann, Inc. |date=1982 |pages=190–195 |chapter=Chapter 22: Conservation's Secret Question |isbn=978-0865760325}} and creationism.{{cite book |last=Hardin |first=Garrett |title=Naked Emperors |publisher=William Kaufmann, Inc. |date=1982 |pages=49–57 |chapter=Chapter 7: "Scientific Creationism" – Marketing Deception as Truth |isbn=978-0865760325}} He was also a proponent of eugenics; his membership in the American Eugenics Society dates to 1956, and Hardin served as a director from 1971-1974 (the American Eugenics Society changed its name to the Society for the Study of Social Biology in 1973).{{Cite journal |last=Locher |first=Fabien |date=2013-04-01 |title=Les pâturages de la Guerre froide : Garrett Hardin et la " Tragédie des communs " |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2013-1-page-7.htm?ref=doi |journal=Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine |volume=60-1 |issue=1 |pages=7–36 |doi=10.3917/rhmc.601.0007 |issn=0048-8003}}
= Neomalthusian approach and "The Tragedy of the Commons" =
In 1968, Hardin applied his conceptual model developed in his essay "The Tragedy of the Commons" to human population growth, the use of the Earth's natural resources, and the welfare state.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} His essay cited an 1833 pamphlet by the English economist William Forster Lloyd which included an example of herders sharing a common parcel of land, which would lead to overgrazing.
Hardin blamed the welfare state for allowing the tragedy of the commons; he claimed that where the state provides for children and supports large families as a fundamental human right,{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} Malthusian catastrophe is inevitable. Hardin stated in his analysis of the tragedy of the commons that "Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all."{{rp|1244}} Environmental historians Joachim Radkau, Alfred Thomas Grove and Oliver Rackham criticized Hardin "as an American with no notion at all how Commons actually work".
In addition, Hardin's pessimistic outlook was subsequently contradicted by Elinor Ostrom's later work on success of co-operative structures like the management of common land, for which she shared the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Oliver E. Williamson. In contrast to Hardin, they stated neither commons or "Allmende" in the generic nor classical meaning are bound to fail; to the contrary "the wealth of the commons" has gained renewed interest in the scientific community. Hardin's work was also criticized as historically inaccurate in failing to account for the demographic transition, and for failing to distinguish between common property and open access resources.{{Cite journal |last1=Ciriacy-Wantrup |first1=S. V. |last2=Bishop |first2=Richard C. |date=1975 |title="Common Property" as a Concept in Natural Resources Policy |url=https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3223&context=nrj |format=PDF |journal=Natural Resources Journal |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=713–727 |issn=0028-0739}}{{Cite journal |last=Cox |first=Susan Jane Buck |date=1985 |title=No Tragedy of the Commons |url=https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/3113/buck-NoTragedy.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |format=PDF |journal=Environmental Ethics |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=49–61 |doi=10.5840/enviroethics1985716 |bibcode=1985EnEth...7...49C |issn=0163-4275}}
Despite the criticisms, the theory has nonetheless been influential.{{cite journal |last1=DeRobertis |first1=Michelle |last2=Lee |first2=Richard W |title=The Tragedy of the Commons of the Urban (and Suburban) Arterial |journal=ITE Journal|volume=87|issue=6|date=June 2017 |pages=44–49 |url=http://digitaleditions.sheridan.com/publication/?i=411307&article_id=2793834&view=articleBrowser&ver=html5#%22{%22 |access-date=2019-04-14}}
= ''Living Within Limits'' =
In 1993, Garrett Hardin published Living Within Limits: Ecology, Economics, and Population Taboos, which he described at the time as a summation of all his previous works. The book won the 1993 Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science. In the book, he argues that the natural sciences are grounded in the concept of limits (such as the speed of light), while social sciences, such as economics, are grounded in concepts that have no limits (such as the widespread "infinite-Earth" economic models). He notes that most of the more notable scientific (as opposed to political) debates concerning ecological economics are between natural scientists, such as Paul R. Ehrlich, and economists, such as Julian Simon, one of Ehrlich's most well known and vocal detractors. A strong theme throughout the book is that economics, as a discipline, can be as much about mythology and ideology as it is about real science.
Hardin goes on to label those who reflexively argue for growth as "growthmaniacs", and argues against the institutional faith in exponential growth on a finite planet. Typical of Hardin's writing style, he illustrates exponential growth by way of a Biblical metaphor. Using compound interest, or "usury", he starts from the infamous "thirty pieces of silver" and, using five percent compounded interest, finds that after around 2,000 years, "every man, woman, and child would be entitled to only (!) 160,000 earth-masses of gold". As a consequence, he argues that any economy based on long-term compound interest must eventually fail due to the physical and mathematical impossibility of long-term exponential growth on a finite planet. Hardin writes, "At this late date millions of people believe in the fertility of money with an ardor seldom accorded to traditional religious doctrines".{{rp|67}} He argues that, contrary to some socially-motivated claims, population growth is also exponential growth, therefore even a little would be disastrous anywhere in the world, and that even the richest nations are not immune.
Personal life
{{Conservatism US}}
= Participation in death-with-dignity movement and suicide =
Hardin, who suffered from a heart disorder and post-polio syndrome,Keynote Address 'We must learn again for ourselves what we have inherited', Wilderness Conference, SF, 1970, or perhaps *A 110. The economics of wilderness.
Natural History, 78(6):20-27. 1969. and his wife, Jane, who suffered from Lou Gehrig's disease, were members of End-of-Life Choices, formerly known as the Hemlock Society.
Believing in individuals' choice of when to die, they killed themselves in their Santa Barbara home in September 2003, shortly after their 62nd wedding anniversary. He was 88 and she was 81.
=Controversies=
Hardin caused controversy for his support of anti-immigrant causes during his lifetime. The Southern Poverty Law Center noted that Hardin served on the board of the Federation for American Immigration Reform and Social Contract Press and co-founded the anti-immigration Californians for Population Stabilization and The Environmental Fund, which according to the SPLC "served to lobby Congress for nativist and isolationist policies".
In 1994, he was one of 52 signatories on "Mainstream Science on Intelligence", an editorial written by Linda Gottfredson and published in the Wall Street Journal, which declared the consensus of the signing scholars on issues related to race and intelligence following the publication of the book The Bell Curve.
Hardin's last book The Ostrich Factor: Our Population Myopia (1999), a warning about the threat of overpopulation to the Earth's sustainable economic future, called for coercive constraints on "unqualified reproductive rights" and argued that affirmative action is a form of racism.
Works
=Books=
- 1949, Biology: Its Human Implications W. H. Freeman{{cite web |title=Garrett Hardin Bibliography |url=https://www.garretthardinsociety.org/docs/gh_bibliography_books.pdf |website=Garrett Hardin Society |access-date=October 16, 2019}}
- 1952, Biology: Its Human Implications, Second Edition W. H. Freeman
- 1959, Nature and Man's Fate, Rinehart & Co.
- 1961, Biology Its Principles and Implications W. H. Freeman
- 1966, Biology Its Principles and Implications, Second Edition W. H. Freeman
- 1972, Exploring new ethics for survival: the voyage of the spaceship Beagle Viking Press. {{ISBN|0670302686}}
- 1973, Stalking the Wild Taboo W. Kaufmann. {{ISBN|0913232033}}
- 1974, Mandatory Motherhood: The True Meaning of 'Right to Life' Beacon Press. {{ISBN|0807021776}}
- 1977, The Limits of Altruism: an Ecologist's view of Survival Indiana University Press. {{ISBN|0253334357}}
- 1980, Promethean Ethics: Living With Death, Competition, and Triage University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0295957174}}
- 1982, Naked Emperors: Essays of a Taboo-Stalker William Kaufmann, Inc. {{ISBN|0865760322}}
- 1985, Filters Against Folly, How to Survive despite Economists, Ecologists, and the Merely Eloquent Viking Penguin. {{ISBN|067080410X}}
- 1993, Living Within Limits: Ecology, Economics, and Population Taboos Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0195093852}}
- 1999, The Ostrich Factor: Our Population Myopia Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0195122747}}
=Selected journal articles=
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=The Competitive Exclusion Principle |doi=10.1126/science.131.3409.1292 |journal=Science |volume=131 |issue=3409 |pages=1292–1297 |year=1960 |pmid=14399717 |bibcode=1960Sci...131.1292H}}
- {{Cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.162.3859.1243 |title=The Tragedy of the Commons |journal=Science |volume=162 |issue=3859 |pages=1243–1248 |year=1968 |pmid=5699198 |last1=Hardin |first1=G |bibcode=1968Sci...162.1243H|doi-access= }}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=Not peace, but ecology |journal=Brookhaven Symposia in Biology |volume=22 |pages=151–161 |year=1969 |pmid=4906521}}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=Everybody's guilty. The ecological dilemma |journal=California Medicine |volume=113 |issue=5 |pages=40–47 |year=1970 |pmid=5485232 |pmc=1501799}}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=Commentary: Living on a Lifeboat |journal=BioScience |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=561–568 |doi=10.2307/1296629 |year=1974 |pmid=11661143 |jstor=1296629 }}
- {{cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=Garrett |year=1974 |title=Lifeboat Ethics: the Case Against Helping the Poor |journal=Psychology Today |volume=8 |pages=38–43 |title-link=Lifeboat ethics }}
- {{cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=Garrett |date=November 1976 |title=Living with Faustian Bargain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vwsAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25 |issn=0096-3402 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=25–29 |bibcode=1976BuAtS..32i..25H |doi=10.1080/00963402.1976.11455655 |url-access=subscription }}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9744.1980.tb00376.x |title=Ecology and the Death of Providence |journal=Zygon |volume=15 |pages=57–68 |year=1980 |s2cid=143248342 }}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=Discriminating Altruisms |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9744.1982.tb00477.x |journal=Zygon |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=163–186 |year=1982 }}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=Is Violence Natural? |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9744.1983.tb00524.x |journal=Zygon |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=405–413 |year=1983 }}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=Human Ecology: The Subversive, Conservative Science |doi=10.1093/icb/25.2.469 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=469–476 |year=1985 |doi-access=free }}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=AIBS News |journal=BioScience |volume=36 |issue=9 |pages=599–606 |year=1986 |jstor=1310194 |doi=10.1093/bioscience/36.9.599 }}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=The tragedy of the unmanaged commons |doi=10.1016/0169-5347(94)90097-3 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=199 |year=1994 |pmid= 21236819|bibcode=1994TEcoE...9..199H }}
- {{Cite journal |last1=Hardin |first1=G. |title=Essays on Science and Society: Extensions of "The Tragedy of the Commons" |doi=10.1126/science.280.5364.682 |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5364 |pages=682–683 |year=1998 |hdl=10535/3915 |s2cid=153844385 |hdl-access=free }}
=Chapters in books=
- 1993. The entire text of Garrett Hardin's Living Within Limits: Ecology, Economics, and Population Taboos, [http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/docs/hardin_living_within_limits_ch_8.pdf Chapter Eight, Growth: Real and Spurious] Reprinted at [http://www.garretthardinsociety.org GarrettHardinSociety.org], by permission of Oxford University Press, Inc
- 1991. "Paramount positions in ecological economics." In Costanza, R. (editor) Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability, New York: Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0231075626}}
- 1991. "The tragedy of the 'Unmanaged' commons – population and the disguises of providence." In: R. V. Andelson, (editor), Commons Without Tragedy, London: Shepheard-Walwyn, pp. 162–185. {{ISBN|0389209589}} (U.S.)
=Awards and honors=
- Hardin was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1973.{{Cite web |title=Garrett James Hardin |url=https://www.amacad.org/person/garrett-james-hardin |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en}}
- Hardin was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1974.{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Garrett+Hardin&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}
- Hardin's 1993 book Living Within Limits: Ecology, Economics, and Population Taboos, received the 1993 Award in Science from Phi Beta Kappa society.{{Cite web |title=Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science – List of Previous Winners |url=http://www.pbk.org/infoview/PBK_Infoview.aspx?t=&id=57 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101219051252/http://www.pbk.org/infoview/PBK_Infoview.aspx?t=&id=57 |archive-date=December 19, 2010 |access-date=October 22, 2023 |website=The Phi Beta Kappa Society}}
See also
{{Portal|Biography|Ecology}}
References
{{Reflist|2|refs=
{{cite news |last=Gottfredson |first=Linda |date=December 13, 1994 |title=Mainstream Science on Intelligence |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |page=A18 |url=http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997mainstream.pdf |access-date=December 12, 2014}}
{{cite news |first=Scott |last=Steepleton |title=Pioneering professor, wife die in apparent double suicide |newspaper=Santa Barbara News-Press |date=September 19, 2003 |url=http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/tributes/obit_sbnews_2003sep18.html |access-date=September 28, 2007}}
}}
Further reading
- Bajema, Carl Jay. "Garrett James Hardin: Ecologist, educator, ethicist and environmentalist." Population & Environment 12.3 (1991): 193–212. [https://www.garretthardinsociety.org/tributes/tr_bajerna_2003dec.html online]
- {{cite journal |last=Locher |first=Fabien |date=2013 |title=Cold War Pastures: Garrett Hardin and the 'Tragedy of the Commons' |journal=Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=7–36 |doi=10.3917/rhmc.601.0007 |url=https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B3B4ch5t5KtnSy11anZ6eS1lLW8&authuser=0=.pdf}}
- Soroos, Marvin S. "Garrett Hardin and tragedies of global commons." Handbook of Global Environmental Politics (2005): 35–50. [http://ebooks.bharathuniv.ac.in/gdlc1/gdlc4/Arts_and_Science_Books/arts/political_science/Politics%20Economics%20and%20Law%201/Books/Handbook%20Global%20Environmental%20Politics.pdf#page=54 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026225801/http://ebooks.bharathuniv.ac.in/gdlc1/gdlc4/Arts_and_Science_Books/arts/political_science/Politics%20Economics%20and%20Law%201/Books/Handbook%20Global%20Environmental%20Politics.pdf#page=54 |date=October 26, 2018 }}
- {{cite book |last1=Wild |first1=Peter |author1-link=Peter Wild |title=Pioneer Conservationists of Western America |date=1978 |publisher=Mountain Press Publishing |location=Missoula |isbn=0878421076 |pages=160–171 |chapter=14: Garrett Hardin and Overpopulation: Lifeboats vs. Mountain Climbers |others=Edward Abbey (Introduction) }}
External links
{{Wikiquote}}
- [http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/ The Garrett Hardin Society] – includes interviews with Hardin in text and video format
- {{IMDb name|6044521}}
- [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/28/us/garrett-hardin-88-ecologist-who-warned-about-excesses.html Obituary in The New York Times]
- [http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/tributes/tributes.html Tributes at the Garrett Hardin Society]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b037hmwr 'Common Tragedy' by Tim Harford]
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