Genetically modified tree#Lignin alteration

Research into genetically modified trees has been ongoing since 1988.{{cite journal |author=Walter, C. |year=2010 |title=The 20-year environmental safety record of GM trees |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=656–658 |doi=10.1038/nbt0710-656 |pmid=20622831 |s2cid=205269523}} Concerns surrounding the biosafety implications of releasing genetically modified trees into the wild have held back regulatory approval of GM forest trees. This concern is exemplified in the Convention on Biological Diversity's stance:

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The Conference of the Parties, Recognising the uncertainties related to the potential environmental and socio-economic impacts, including long term and trans-boundary impacts, of genetically modified trees on global forest biological diversity, as well as on the livelihoods of indigenous and local communities, and given the absence of reliable data and of capacity in some countries to undertake risk assessments and to evaluate those potential impacts, recommends parties to take a precautionary approach when addressing the issue of genetically modified trees.{{cite web |title=COP 8 Decision VIII/19 Forest biological diversity: implementation of the programme of work |url=http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=11033 |publisher=Convention on Biological Diversity |access-date=16 January 2014 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019074754/http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=11033 |url-status=live }} }}

A precondition for further commercialization of GM forest trees is likely to be their complete sterility.{{cite journal |author=Sedjo, R.A. |year=2004 |title=Genetically Engineered Trees: Promise and Concerns |journal=Resources for the Future |pages=20–21 |url=http://www.rff.org/rff/Documents/RFF-RPT-Forest.pdf |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512090949/http://www.rff.org/rff/Documents/RFF-RPT-Forest.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2012 |url-status=dead}} Plantation trees remain phenotypically similar to their wild cousins in that most are the product of no more than three generations of artificial selection, therefore, the risk of transgene escape by pollination with compatible wild species is high.{{cite journal |author=Bradshaw, A.H. |title=Plotting a course for GM forestry |journal=Nature Biotechnology |year=2001 |volume=19 |pages=1103–1104 |doi=10.1038/nbt1201-1103b |issue=12 |pmid=11731771 |s2cid=34614487}} One of the most credible science-based concerns with GM trees is their potential for wide dispersal of seed and pollen.{{cite journal |author=Strauss, S.H. |title=Strangled at birth? Forest biotech and the Convention on Biological Diversity |journal=Nature Biotechnology |year=2009 |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=519–27 |doi=10.1038/nbt0609-519 |pmid=19513052 |doi-access=}} The fact that pine pollen travels long distances is well established, moving up to 3,000 kilometers from its source.{{cite journal |author=Williams, C.G. |title=Long-distance pine pollen still germinates after meso-scale dispersal |journal=American Journal of Botany |year=2010 |volume=97 |issue=5 |pages=846–855 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0900255 |pmid=21622450|bibcode=2010AmJB...97..846W }} Additionally, many tree species reproduce for a long time before being harvested.{{cite journal |author=Kuparinen, A. |title=Assessing the risk of gene flow from genetically modified trees carrying mitigation transgenes |journal=Biological Invasions |year=2008 |volume=10 |issue=3 |page=282 |doi=10.1007/s10530-007-9129-6 |bibcode=2008BiInv..10..281K |s2cid=3175905}} In combination these factors have led some to believe that GM trees are worthy of special environmental considerations over GM crops.{{cite journal |author=James, R.R. |title=Utilizing a social ethic toward the environment in assessing genetically engineered insect-resistance in trees |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |year=1997 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=237–249 |doi=10.1023/A:1007408811726 |s2cid=153218540}} Ensuring sterility for GM trees has proven elusive, but efforts are being made.{{cite journal |author=Ahuja, M.R. |title=Fate of transgenes in the forest tree genome |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes |year=2011 |volume=7 |issue=2 |page=226 |doi=10.1007/s11295-010-0339-1 |s2cid=32163658}} While tree geneticist Steve Strauss predicted that complete containment might be possible by 2020, many questions remain.{{cite news |title=USDA Weighs Plan to Bring GM Eucalyptus to Southeast Pinelands |url=https://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/01/29/29greenwire-usda-weighs-plan-to-bring-gm-eucalyptus-to-sou-90133.html?pagewanted=1 |newspaper=New York Times |date=29 January 2010 |access-date=1 March 2017 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305063627/http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2010/01/29/29greenwire-usda-weighs-plan-to-bring-gm-eucalyptus-to-sou-90133.html?pagewanted=1 |url-status=live }}

GM trees under experimental development have been modified with traits intended to provide benefit to industry, foresters or consumers. Due to high regulatory and research costs, the majority of genetically modified trees in silviculture consist of plantation trees, such as eucalyptus, poplar, and pine.

Several companies and organizations (including ArborGen,{{Cite web |url=http://biomassmagazine.com/articles/7038/genetically-modified-low-lignin-eucalyptus-yields-twice-the-sugar/?ref=brm |title=Genetically modified low-lignin eucalyptus yields twice the sugar |access-date=2018-08-09 |archive-date=2018-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809122451/http://biomassmagazine.com/articles/7038/genetically-modified-low-lignin-eucalyptus-yields-twice-the-sugar/?ref=brm |url-status=live }} GLBRC,{{Cite web |url=https://www.glbrc.org/news/poplars-designed-deconstruction-major-boon-biofuels |title=Poplars "designed for deconstruction" a major boon to biofuels |date=17 January 2018 |access-date=2018-08-09 |archive-date=2018-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809122002/https://www.glbrc.org/news/poplars-designed-deconstruction-major-boon-biofuels |url-status=live }} ...) in the pulp and paper industry are interested in utilizing GM technology to alter the lignin content of plantation trees (particularly eucalyptus and poplar trees{{Cite news |url=http://news.ubc.ca/2014/04/03/researchers-design-trees-that-make-it-easier-to-make-paper/ |title=Researchers design trees that make it easier to produce pulp |newspaper=Ubc News |access-date=2018-08-09 |archive-date=2018-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809122648/http://news.ubc.ca/2014/04/03/researchers-design-trees-that-make-it-easier-to-make-paper/ |url-status=live }}). It is estimated that reducing lignin in plantation trees by genetic modification could reduce pulping costs by up to $15 per cubic metre.{{cite journal |author=Sedjo, R.A. |year=2004 |title=Genetically Engineered Trees: Promise and Concerns |journal=Resources for the Future |page=15 |url=http://www.rff.org/rff/Documents/RFF-RPT-Forest.pdf |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512090949/http://www.rff.org/rff/Documents/RFF-RPT-Forest.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2012 |url-status=dead}} Lignin removal from wood fibres conventionally relies on costly and environmentally hazardous chemicals.{{cite journal |author=Owusu, R.A. |year=1999 |title=GM technology in the forest sector - A scoping study for WWF |journal=WWF |page=10 |url=http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/gm.pdf |access-date=2014-01-25 |archive-date=2014-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201195811/http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/gm.pdf |url-status=live }} By developing low-lignin GM trees it is hoped that pulping and bleaching processes will require fewer inputs,{{cite book |title=Genescapes - The Ecology of Genetic Engineering |author=Nottingham, S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=36FZ7GSkhqoC |year=2002 |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-1842770375 |access-date=2021-05-29 |archive-date=2024-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240504232755/https://books.google.com/books?id=36FZ7GSkhqoC |url-status=live }} therefore, mills supplied by low-lignin GM trees may have a reduced impact on their surrounding ecosystems and communities.{{cite journal |author=Doering, D. S. |year=2001 |title=Will the Marketplace See the Sustainable Forest for the Transgenic Trees? |journal=Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Ecological and Societal Aspects of Transgenic Plantations |pages=70–81 |quote=The communities at or near the plantations and the paper mills may receive a net environmental benefit of cleaner water and air in their communities. (p. 73) |url=http://www.fsl.orst.edu/tgerc/iufro2001/eprocd_13.pdf |access-date=25 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202104859/http://www.fsl.orst.edu/tgerc/iufro2001/eprocd_13.pdf |archive-date=2 February 2014 |url-status=dead}} However, it is argued that reductions in lignin may compromise the structural integrity of the plant, thereby making it more susceptible to wind, snow, pathogens and disease,{{cite journal |author=Meilan, R. |year=2007 |title=Manipulating Lignin Biosynthesis to Improve Populus as a Bio-Energy Feedstock |journal=Institute of Forest Biotechnology, Genetically Engineered Forest Trees - Identifying Priorities for Ecological Risk Assessment |pages=55–61 |quote=Some scientists believe ... that reducing lignin content may lead to increases in cellulose content. But critics argue that reductions in lignin will compromise the structural integrity of the plant and make it more susceptible to pathogens, and diseases. (p. 59) |url=http://www.forestbiotech.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/biotech_trees_eco_risk_book_online.pdf |access-date=25 January 2014 |archive-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202235444/http://www.forestbiotech.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/biotech_trees_eco_risk_book_online.pdf |url-status=dead}} which could necessitate pesticide use exceeding that on traditional plantations.{{cite journal |author=Hall, C. |year=2007 |title=GM technology in forestry: lessons from the GM food 'debate' |journal=International Journal of Biotechnology |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=436–447 |quote=Altering the quality or quantity of lignin may have significant impacts on the survival abilities of the tree, such as impairing its pest or disease resistance and necessitating the use of additional pesticides. |url=http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=14270 |doi=10.1504/ijbt.2007.014270 |access-date=2014-01-25 |archive-date=2014-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202101519/http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=14270 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} This has proven correct, and an alternative approach followed by the University of Columbia was developed. This approach was to introduce chemically labile linkages instead (by inserting a gene from the plant Angelica sinensis), which allows the lignin to break down much more easy.{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1250161 |title=Monolignol Ferulate Transferase Introduces Chemically Labile Linkages into the Lignin Backbone |year=2014 |last1=Wilkerson |first1=C. G. |last2=Mansfield |first2=S. D. |last3=Lu |first3=F. |last4=Withers |first4=S. |last5=Park |first5=J.-Y. |last6=Karlen |first6=S. D. |last7=Gonzales-Vigil |first7=E. |last8=Padmakshan |first8=D. |last9=Unda |first9=F. | last10=Rencoret | first10=J. |last11=Ralph |first11=J. |journal=Science |volume=344 |issue=6179 |pages=90–93 |pmid=24700858 |bibcode=2014Sci...344...90W |hdl=10261/95743 |s2cid=25429319 |hdl-access=free}} Due to this new approach, the lignin from the trees not only easily breaks apart when treated with a mild base at temperatures of 100 degrees C, but the trees also maintained their growth potential and strength.{{Cite web |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2014/04/04/genetically-modified-trees-clean-paper-industry/#.W2v-vLh49kg |title=Genetically Modified Trees Could Clean Up Paper Industry |access-date=2018-08-09 |archive-date=2019-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827042600/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2014/04/04/genetically-modified-trees-clean-paper-industry/#.W2v-vLh49kg |url-status=dead }}

Genetic modification can allow trees to cope with abiotic stresses such that their geographic range is broadened.{{cite journal |author1=Mathews, J.H. |author2=Campbell, M.M. |year=2000 |title=The advantages and disadvantages of the application of genetic engineering to forest trees: a discussion |journal=Forestry |volume=73 |issue=4 |pages=371–380 |quote=As Pullman et al.(1998) pointed out, modification of trees’ adaptation to environmental stresses will enable foresters to grow more desirable commercial tree species on a broader range of soil types and planting sites. (p.375) |doi=10.1093/forestry/73.4.371 |doi-access=free}} Freeze-tolerant GM eucalyptus trees for use in southern US plantations are currently being tested in open air sites with such an objective in mind. ArborGen, a tree biotechnology company and joint venture of pulp and paper firms Rubicon (New Zealand), MeadWestvaco (US) and International Paper (US){{cite journal |author=Harfouche, A. |year=2011 |title=Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production |journal=Trends in Biotechnology |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=9–17 |quote=ArborGen is a joint venture between International Paper Company (USA) MeadWestvaco (USA) and Rubicon Limited (New Zealand) (p.13) |doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003 |pmid=20970211 |display-authors=etal}} is leading this research.{{cite web |author=Institute of Forest Biotechnology |year=2007 |title=Genetically Engineered Forest Trees - Identifying Priorities for Ecological Risk Assessment - Summary of a Multistakeholder Workshop |quote=private company ArborGen is reportedly focusing on the development of three GE varieties: fast-growing loblolly pine for Southern pine plantations, low-lignin eucalyptus for use in South America, and cold-hardy eucalyptus for the Southern U.S. (p. ix) |url=http://www.forestbiotech.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/biotech_trees_eco_risk_book_online.pdf |journal= |access-date=25 January 2014 |archive-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202235444/http://www.forestbiotech.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/biotech_trees_eco_risk_book_online.pdf |url-status=dead}} Until now the cultivation of eucalyptus has only been possible on the southern tip of Florida, freeze-tolerance would substantially extend the cultivation range northwards.{{cite news |title=Deliberate release of genetically modified trees An abundance of poplars |url=http://www.gmo-safety.eu/basic-info/311.abundance-poplars.html |newspaper=GMO Safety |date=1 June 2012 |quote=A gene has been introduced into the trees that makes them less sensitive to cold. Until now cultivation of eucalyptus in the US was only possible on the southern tip of Florida; frost tolerance could mean that cultivation would be possible in other parts of the USA. |access-date=27 January 2014 |archive-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202101725/http://www.gmo-safety.eu/basic-info/311.abundance-poplars.html |url-status=dead}}

Orchard trees require a rootstock with reduced vigour to allow them to remain small.

Genetic modification could allow the elimination of the rootstock, by making the tree less vigorous, hence reducing its height when fully mature. Research is being done into which genes are responsible for the vigour in orchard trees (such as apples, pears, ...).{{cite journal |pmc=4580296 |pmid=26394845 |doi=10.1186/s12870-015-0620-4 |volume=15 |title=Genetic control of pear rootstock-induced dwarfing and precocity is linked to a chromosomal region syntenic to the apple Dw1 loci |year=2015 |journal=BMC Plant Biol |page=230 |vauthors=Knäbel M, Friend AP, Palmer JW, Diack R, Wiedow C, Alspach P, Deng C, Gardiner SE, Tustin DS, Schaffer R, Foster T, Chagné D |issue=1 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2015BMCPB..15..230K }}{{cite journal |pmc=5381684 |pmid=28435686 |doi=10.1038/hortres.2017.9 |volume=4 |title=Apple dwarfing rootstocks exhibit an imbalance in carbohydrate allocation and reduced cell growth and metabolism |year=2017 |journal=Hortic Res |page=17009 |vauthors=Foster TM, McAtee PA, Waite CN, Boldingh HL, McGhie TK|issue=1 |bibcode=2017HorR....417009F }}

In Brazil, field trials of fast growing GM eucalyptus are currently underway, they were set to conclude in 2015–2016 with commercialization to result.{{cite journal |author=Overbeek W. |year=2012 |title=An overview of industrial tree plantation conflicts in the global South. Conflicts, trends, and resistance struggles. |journal=EJOLT |volume=3 |page=84 |url=http://www.ejolt.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/EJOLT-Report-3-low1.pdf |access-date=2014-01-17 |archive-date=2014-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202101540/http://www.ejolt.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/EJOLT-Report-3-low1.pdf |url-status=live }} FuturaGene, a biotechnology company owned by Suzano, a Brazilian pulp and paper company, has been leading this research. Stanley Hirsch, chief executive of FuturaGene has stated: "Our trees grow faster and thicker. We are ahead of everyone. We have shown we can increase the yields and growth rates of trees more than anything grown by traditional breeding."{{cite news |title=The GM tree plantations bred to satisfy the world's energy needs - Israeli biotech firm says its modified eucalyptus trees can displace the fossil fuel industry |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/15/gm-trees-bred-world-energy |newspaper=Guardian |date=15 November 2012 |author=Vidal, J. |access-date=11 December 2016 |archive-date=2 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102090311/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/15/gm-trees-bred-world-energy |url-status=live }} The company is looking to reduce harvest cycles from 7 to 5.5 years with 20-30% more mass than conventional eucalyptus. There is concern that such objectives may further exacerbate the negative impacts of plantation forestry. Increased water and soil nutrient demand from faster growing species may lead to irrecoverable losses in site productivity and further impinge upon neighbouring communities and ecosystems.{{cite journal |author=Gerber, J.F. |year=2011 |title=Conflicts over industrial tree plantations in the South: Who, how and why? |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=165–176 |quote=Fast-wood plantations tend to destabilize water cycles provoking reduced water flow throughout the year, the disappearance of streams during the dry season, and damages to other (agro-)ecosystems (p.167) |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.09.005|bibcode=2011GEC....21..165G }}{{cite journal |author=Owusu, R.A. |year=1999 |title=GM technology in the forest sector - A scoping study for WWF |journal=WWF |quote=Biotechnology may inadvertently become yet another driver for inappropriate plantation development. Increased soil nutrient and water demand of fast growing species on short rotations could lead to irrecoverable loss of site productivity. (p.5) |url=http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/gm.pdf |access-date=2014-01-25 |archive-date=2014-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201195811/http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/gm.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite book |author=Nottingham, S. |year=2002 |title=Genescapes - The Ecology of Genetic Engineering |publisher=Zed Books |quote=fast-growing transgenic trees will make additional demands on soil nutrients and water, with consequences for the long-term fertility of soils. Substantial fertilizer inputs might be necessary to maintain high yields |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=36FZ7GSkhqoC |isbn=9781842770375 |access-date=2021-05-29 |archive-date=2024-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240504232755/https://books.google.com/books?id=36FZ7GSkhqoC |url-status=live }} Researchers at the University of Manchester's Faculty of Life Sciences modified two genes in poplar trees, called PXY and CLE, which are responsible for the rate of cell division in tree trunks. As a result, the trees are growing twice as fast as normal, and also end up being taller, wider and with more leaves.{{Cite web |url=https://newatlas.com/gene-manipulation-boost-tree-growth-rate-size/37163/ |title=Gene manipulation boosts tree growth rate and size |date=24 April 2015 |access-date=2018-08-09 |archive-date=2018-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809121827/https://newatlas.com/gene-manipulation-boost-tree-growth-rate-size/37163/ |url-status=live }}

Ecologically motivated research into genetic modification is underway. There are ongoing schemes that aim to foster disease resistance in trees such as the American chestnut{{cite news |title=Into the Wildwood |url=https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21577033-gm-species-may-soon-be-liberated-deliberately-wildwood |newspaper=The Economist |date=4 May 2013 |access-date=28 August 2017 |archive-date=15 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715102205/https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21577033-gm-species-may-soon-be-liberated-deliberately-wildwood |url-status=live }} (see Chestnut blight) and the English elm{{cite journal |author=Harfouche, A. |year=2011 |title=Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production |journal=Trends in Biotechnology |volume=29 |issue=1 |page=13 |doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003 |pmid=20970211}} (see Dutch elm disease) for the purpose of their reintroduction to the wild. Specific diseases have reduced the populations of these emblematic species to the extent that they are mostly lost in the wild. Genetic modification is being pursued concurrently with traditional breeding techniques in an attempt to endow these species with disease resistance.Powell, William (March 2014) "the American Chestnut's Genetic Rebirth", Scientific American, Volume 310, Number 3, Page 52

In 2002 China's State Forestry Administration approved GM poplar trees for commercial use.{{cite web |last=Lang |first=Chris |title=China: Genetically modified madness |quote=Two years ago, China's State Forestry Administration approved genetically modified (GM) poplar trees for commercial planting. |url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/oldsite/bulletin/85/Asia.html#China |publisher=The World Rainforest Movement |year=2004 |access-date=29 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203082821/http://www.wrm.org.uy/oldsite/bulletin/85/Asia.html#China |archive-date=3 February 2014 |url-status=dead}} Subsequently, 1.4 million Bt (insecticide) producing GM poplars were planted in China. They were planted both for their wood and as part of China's 'Green Wall' project, which aims to impede desertification.{{cite web |author1=Then, C. |author2=Hamberger, S. |year=2010 |title=Genetically engineered trees – a ticking "time bomb"? |website=Testbiotech.de |url=http://www.testbiotech.de/sites/default/files/101207_testbiotech_pappeln_en.pdf |access-date=2014-01-29 |archive-date=2014-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201220715/http://www.testbiotech.de/sites/default/files/101207_testbiotech_pappeln_en.pdf |url-status=live }} Reports indicate that the GM poplars have spread beyond the area of original planting {{cite journal |author=Sedjo, R.A. |year=2005 |title=Will Developing Countries be the Early Adopters of Genetically Engineered Forests? Resources for the Future |journal=AgBioForum |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=205–211 |quote=the engineered gene has probably spread beyond the area of the original plantings (p.206) |url=http://www.agbioforum.org/v8n4/v8n4a02-sedjo.pdf |access-date=16 January 2014 |archive-date=13 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413142033/http://www.agbioforum.org/v8n4/v8n4a02-sedjo.pdf |url-status=dead}} and that contamination of native poplars with the Bt gene is occurring.{{cite journal |author=Carman, N. |year=2006 |title=Ecological and Social Impacts of Fast Growing Timber Plantations and Genetically Engineered Trees |journal=Dogwood Alliance |quote=The Nanjing Institute of Environmental Science has reported that contamination of native poplars with the Bt gene is already occurring. (p.4) |url=http://www.dogwoodalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/manuscript_final.pdf |access-date=2014-01-31 |archive-date=2014-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220203849/http://www.dogwoodalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/manuscript_final.pdf |url-status=live }} There is concern with these developments, particularly because the pesticide producing trait may impart a positive selective advantage on the poplar, allowing it a high level of invasiveness.{{cite journal |author1=Then, C. |author2=Hamberger, S. |year=2010 |title=Genetically engineered trees – a ticking "time bomb"? |journal=Testbiotech |quote=Bt poplars are grown alongside non-transgenic trees, possibly delaying the emergence of resistances. If this is the case, the transgenic poplars will have higher fitness in comparison to the other trees, thus conceivably fostering their invasiveness in the mid or even long-term. (p.16) |url=http://www.testbiotech.de/sites/default/files/101207_testbiotech_pappeln_en.pdf |access-date=2014-01-29 |archive-date=2014-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201220715/http://www.testbiotech.de/sites/default/files/101207_testbiotech_pappeln_en.pdf |url-status=live }}

Living Carbon, an American biotechnology company founded in 2019, has developed genetically engineered hybrid poplar trees aimed at enhancing carbon sequestration. These trees have been modified to improve photosynthetic efficiency, enabling them to capture more carbon dioxide (CO₂) and produce greater woody biomass than conventional trees. Living Carbon’s mission is to leverage technology to combat climate change while promoting biodiversity and restoring degraded ecosystems.{{Cite web |title=About |url=https://www.livingcarbon.com/about |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=www.livingcarbon.com}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tao |first1=Yumin |last2=Chiu |first2=Li-Wei |last3=Hoyle |first3=Jacob W. |last4=Dewhirst |first4=Rebecca A. |last5=Richey |first5=Christian |last6=Rasmussen |first6=Karli |last7=Du |first7=Jessica |last8=Mellor |first8=Patrick |last9=Kuiper |first9=Julie |last10=Tucker |first10=Dominick |last11=Crites |first11=Alex |last12=Orr |first12=Gary A. |last13=Heckert |first13=Matthew J. |last14=Godinez-Vidal |first14=Damaris |last15=Orozco-Cardenas |first15=Martha L. |date= 2023|title=Enhanced Photosynthetic Efficiency for Increased Carbon Assimilation and Woody Biomass Production in Engineered Hybrid Poplar |journal=Forests |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=827 |doi=10.3390/f14040827 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Fore...14..827T |issn=1999-4907}}

Living Carbon’s genetically modified trees were first planted in a bottomland forest in Georgia, USA, in February 2023. Early field trials indicated that these trees achieved a 53% increase in above-ground biomass compared to control groups, enabling them to absorb 27% more carbon. The company generates revenue by selling carbon credits derived from these forests to individuals and businesses seeking to offset greenhouse gas emissions.{{Cite web |title=Inside the quest to engineer climate-saving "super trees" |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/06/08/1074287/inside-the-quest-to-engineer-climate-saving-super-trees/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=MIT Technology Review |language=en}}

Supporters of Living Carbon’s approach highlight its potential to contribute to global climate solutions, particularly if deployed on a large scale. The modified trees are targeted for use in afforestation and reforestation projects on degraded land, where they can aid in carbon capture and ecosystem restoration without displacing native species. These projects also aim to enhance biodiversity while addressing environmental degradation.{{Cite news |last=Corbyn |first=Zoë |date=2023-10-15 |title=Could superpowered plants be the heroes of the climate crisis? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/oct/15/superpower-plants-absorb-carbon-co2-climate-crisis |access-date=2024-12-13 |work=The Observer |language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}

The deployment of genetically modified trees has been met with skepticism. Critics, including some forestry and genetic experts, question whether the trees will meet carbon absorption expectations outside controlled laboratory settings. Concerns have also been raised about the potential ecological risks, such as the unintended spread of genetically modified traits to wild tree populations, which could disrupt native ecosystems.{{Cite web |last=Portala |first=Juliette |date=2023-07-27 |title=Genetically engineered trees stoke climate hope — and environmental fears |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2023/07/genetically-engineered-trees-stoke-climate-hope-and-environmental-fears/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |last=Fialka |first=John |title=Start-up Hopes 'Super' Poplar Trees Will Suck Up More CO2 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/start-up-hopes-super-poplar-trees-will-suck-up-more-co2/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}

Maddie Hall, co-founder of Living Carbon, has addressed these concerns, emphasizing the urgency of climate action and the limitations of waiting for natural evolutionary processes to improve tree resilience. However, experts note that achieving success in lab or greenhouse trials does not guarantee similar outcomes in complex, natural environments.{{Cite AV media |url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/tv/2023/02/27/genetic-technologies-show-decoded-spc-intl.cnn |title=Decoding genetic technologies |date=2023-02-27 |language=en |access-date=2024-12-13 |via=edition.cnn.com}}

• Genetically modified crops
• Genetically modified food
• Genetically modified organisms
• Plantations
• Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms
• Tree breeding

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Category:Genetically modified organisms

Category:Environmental issues with forests

Category:Trees