Gout

Image:Gout2010.JPG of the big toe]]

Gout can present in several ways, although the most common is a recurrent attack of acute inflammatory arthritis (a red, tender, hot, swollen joint). The metatarsophalangeal joint at the base of the big toe is affected most often, accounting for half of cases. It can also involve midfoot structures, including the cuneiform bones.{{Cite journal |last1=Cohen-Rosenblum |first1=Anna R. |last2=Somogyi |first2=Jason R. |last3=Hynes |first3=Kelly K. |last4=Guevara |first4=Myriam E. |date=2022-11-01 |title=Orthopaedic Management of Gout |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Global Research & Reviews |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=e22.00216 |doi=10.5435/JAAOSGlobal-D-22-00216 |issn=2474-7661 |pmc=9645791 |pmid=36346841}} Other joints, such as the heels, knees, wrists, and fingers, may also be affected. Joint pain usually begins during the night and peaks within 24 hours of onset. This is mainly due to lower body temperature. Other symptoms may rarely occur along with the joint pain, including fatigue and high fever.{{cite journal |author=Eggebeen AT |title=Gout: an update |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=76 |issue=6 |pages=801–808 |year=2007 |pmid=17910294}}

Long-standing elevated uric acid levels (hyperuricemia) may result in other symptoms, including hard, painless deposits of uric acid crystals called tophi. Extensive tophi may lead to chronic arthritis due to bone erosion. Elevated levels of uric acid may also lead to crystals precipitating in the kidneys, resulting in kidney stone formation and subsequent acute uric acid nephropathy.

File:Tophaceous gout affecting the arms and hands Wellcome L0062959.jpg of sodium urate affecting the elbow, knuckles, and finger joints.]]

The crystallization of uric acid, often related to relatively high levels in the blood, is the underlying cause of gout. This can occur because of diet, genetic predisposition, or underexcretion of urate, the salts of uric acid. Underexcretion of uric acid by the kidney is the primary cause of hyperuricemia in about 90% of cases, while overproduction is the cause in less than 10%. About 10% of people with hyperuricemia develop gout at some point in their lifetimes.{{cite journal |vauthors=Vitart V, Rudan I, Hayward C, etal |title=SLC2A9 is a newly identified urate transporter influencing serum urate concentration, urate excretion and gout |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=437–442 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18327257 |doi=10.1038/ng.106 |s2cid=6720464 |url=http://idiprints.knjiznica.idi.hr/373/ |access-date=27 July 2022 |archive-date=27 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727105749/http://idiprints.knjiznica.idi.hr/373/ |url-status=live }} The risk, however, varies depending on the degree of hyperuricemia. When levels are between 415 and 530 μmol/L (7 and 8.9 mg/dL), the risk is 0.5% per year, while in those with a level greater than 535 μmol/L (9 mg/dL), the risk is 4.5% per year.

Dietary causes account for about 12% of gout,{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen LX, Schumacher HR |title=Gout: an evidence-based review |journal=J Clin Rheumatol |volume=14 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=S55–S62 |date=October 2008 |pmid=18830092 |doi=10.1097/RHU.0b013e3181896921 |s2cid=6644013 }} and include a strong association with the consumption of alcohol, sugar-sweetened beverages,{{cite journal |vauthors=Ebrahimpour-Koujan S, Saneei P, Larijani B, Esmaillzadeh A |title=Consumption of sugar sweetened beverages and dietary fructose in relation to risk of gout and hyperuricemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |date=2020 |pmid=30277800 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2018.1503155 |s2cid=52909165 }} meat, and seafood. The dietary mechanisms and nutritional basis involved in gout provide evidence for strategies of prevention and improvement of gout, and dietary modifications based on effective regulatory mechanisms may be a promising strategy to reduce the high prevalence of gout.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yingling |last2=Chen |first2=Simin |last3=Yuan |first3=Man |last4=Xu |first4=Yu |last5=Xu |first5=Hongxi |date=2022-08-26 |title=Gout and Diet: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanisms and Management |journal=Nutrients |language=en |volume=14 |issue=17 |pages=3525 |doi=10.3390/nu14173525 |doi-access=free |pmid=36079783 |pmc=9459802 |issn=2072-6643 }} Among foods richest in purines yielding high amounts of uric acid are dried anchovies, shrimp, organ meat, dried mushrooms, seaweed, and beer yeast.{{cite journal |last1=Kaneko |first1=Kiyoko |last2=Aoyagi |first2=Yasuo |last3=Fukuuchi |first3=Tomoko |last4=Inazawa |first4=Katsunori |last5=Yamaoka |first5=Noriko |title=Total Purine and Purine Base Content of Common Foodstuffs for Facilitating Nutritional Therapy for Gout and Hyperuricemia |journal=Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin |date=2014 |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=709–721 |doi=10.1248/bpb.b13-00967 |pmid=24553148 |doi-access=free }} Chicken and potatoes also appear related.{{cite journal |last1=Major |first1=Tanya J |last2=Topless |first2=Ruth K |last3=Dalbeth |first3=Nicola|author3-link= Nicola Dalbeth |last4=Merriman |first4=Tony R |title=Evaluation of the diet wide contribution to serum urate levels: meta-analysis of population based cohorts |journal=BMJ |volume=363 |date=10 October 2018 |pages=k3951 |doi=10.1136/bmj.k3951|pmid=30305269 |pmc=6174725 }} Other triggers include physical trauma and surgery.

Studies in the early 2000s found that other dietary factors are not relevant.{{cite journal |vauthors=Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Willett W, Curhan G |title=Purine-rich foods, dairy and protein intake, and the risk of gout in men |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=350 |issue=11 |pages=1093–1103 |date=March 2004 |pmid=15014182 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa035700 |doi-access=free }} Specifically, a diet with moderate purine-rich vegetables (e.g., beans, peas, lentils, and spinach) is not associated with gout.{{cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=JA|last2=Reddy|first2=SG|last3=Kundukulam|first3=J|title=Risk factors for gout and prevention: a systematic review of the literature|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|date=March 2011|volume=23|issue=2|pages=192–202|pmid=21285714|doi=10.1097/BOR.0b013e3283438e13|pmc=4104583}} Neither is total dietary protein. Alcohol consumption is strongly associated with increased risk, with wine presenting somewhat less of a risk than beer or spirits.{{cite journal |last1=Roddy |first1=E. |last2=Mallen |first2=C. D. |last3=Doherty |first3=M. |title=Gout |journal=BMJ |date=1 October 2013 |volume=347 |issue=oct01 3 |pages=f5648 |doi=10.1136/bmj.f5648 |pmid=24473446 |s2cid=220212466 }} Eating skim milk powder enriched with glycomacropeptide (GMP) and G600 milk fat extract may reduce pain but may result in diarrhea and nausea.{{cite journal|last1=Moi|first1=John HY|last2=Sriranganathan|first2=Melonie K|last3=Edwards|first3=Christopher J|last4=Buchbinder|first4=Rachelle|date=31 May 2013|title=Lifestyle interventions for chronic gout|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2013 |issue=5|pages=CD010039|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd010039.pub2|pmid=23728699|pmc=6759140|issn=1465-1858}}

Physical fitness, healthy weight, low-fat dairy products, and to a lesser extent, coffee and taking vitamin C, appear to decrease the risk of gout;{{cite journal |vauthors=Hak AE, Choi HK |title=Lifestyle and gout |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=179–186 |date=March 2008 |pmid=18349748 |doi=10.1097/BOR.0b013e3282f524a2 |s2cid=205485689 }}{{cite journal |author=Williams PT |title=Effects of diet, physical activity and performance, and body weight on incident gout in ostensibly healthy, vigorously active men |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=87 |issue=5 |pages=1480–1487 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18469274 |pmc=4090353 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/87.5.1480 }}{{cite journal |author=Choi HK |title=A prescription for lifestyle change in patients with hyperuricemia and gout |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=165–172 |date=March 2010 |pmid=20035225 |doi=10.1097/BOR.0b013e328335ef38 |s2cid=19146212 }}{{cite journal|last1=Park|first1=Kyu Yong|last2=Kim|first2=Hyun Jung|last3=Ahn|first3=Hyeong Sik|last4=Kim|first4=Sun Hee|last5=Park|first5=Eun Ji|last6=Yim|first6=Shin-Young|last7=Jun|first7=Jae-Bum|title=Effects of coffee consumption on serum uric acid: systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism|date=April 2016|volume=45|issue=5|pages=580–586|doi=10.1016/j.semarthrit.2016.01.003|pmid=26905267}} however, taking vitamin C supplements does not appear to have a significant effect in people who already have established gout. Peanuts, brown bread, and fruit also appear protective. This is believed to be partly due to their effect in reducing insulin resistance.

Other than dietary and lifestyle choices, the recurrence of gout attacks is also linked to the weather. High ambient temperature and low relative humidity may increase the risk of a gout attack.{{cite journal |last1=Neogi |first1=Tuhina |last2=Chen |first2=Clara |last3=Niu |first3=Jingbo |last4=Chaisson |first4=Christine |last5=Hunter |first5=David J. |last6=Choi |first6=Hyon |last7=Zhang |first7=Yuqing |date=15 August 2014 |title=Relation of Temperature and Humidity to the Risk of Recurrent Gout Attacks |journal=American Journal of Epidemiology |volume=180 |issue=4 |pages=372–377 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwu147 |issn=0002-9262 |pmc=4184385 |pmid=24993733}}

Gout is partly genetic, contributing to about 60% of variability in uric acid level. The SLC2A9, SLC22A12, and ABCG2 genes have been found to be commonly associated with gout and variations in them can approximately double the risk.{{cite journal|last=Merriman|first=TR|author2=Dalbeth, N|author2-link= Nicola Dalbeth |title=The genetic basis of hyperuricaemia and gout|journal= Joint Bone Spine|year=2011|volume=78|issue=1|pages=35–40|pmid=20472486|doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2010.02.027}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Reginato AM, Mount DB, Yang I, Choi HK |title=The genetics of hyperuricaemia and gout |journal=Nature Reviews Rheumatology|year=2012 |pmid=22945592 |doi=10.1038/nrrheum.2012.144 |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=610–621 |pmc=3645862 }} Loss-of-function mutations in SLC2A9 and SLC22A12 causes low blood uric acid levels by reducing urate absorption and unopposed urate secretion. The rare genetic disorders familial juvenile hyperuricemic nephropathy, medullary cystic kidney disease, phosphoribosylpyrophosphate synthetase superactivity and hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency as seen in Lesch–Nyhan syndrome, are complicated by gout.

Gout frequently occurs in combination with other medical problems. Metabolic syndrome, a combination of abdominal obesity, hypertension, insulin resistance, and abnormal lipid levels, occurs in nearly 75% of cases. Other conditions commonly complicated by gout include lead poisoning, kidney failure, hemolytic anemia, psoriasis, solid organ transplants, and myeloproliferative disorders such as polycythemia.{{cite journal |vauthors=Stamp L, Searle M, O'Donnell J, Chapman P |title=Gout in solid organ transplantation: a challenging clinical problem |journal=Drugs |volume=65 |issue=18 |pages=2593–2611 |year=2005 |pmid=16392875 |doi=10.2165/00003495-200565180-00004|s2cid=46979126 }} A body mass index greater than or equal to 35 increases male risk of gout threefold. Chronic lead exposure and lead-contaminated alcohol are risk factors for gout due to the harmful effect of lead on kidney function.{{cite journal |author=Loghman-Adham M |title=Renal effects of environmental and occupational lead exposure |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=105 |issue=9 |pages=928–938 |date=September 1997 |pmid=9300927 |pmc=1470371 |doi= 10.2307/3433873|jstor=3433873}}

Diuretics have been associated with attacks of gout, but a low dose of hydrochlorothiazide does not seem to increase risk. Other medications that increase the risk include niacin, aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, beta blockers, ritonavir, and pyrazinamide. The immunosuppressive drugs ciclosporin and tacrolimus are also associated with gout, the former more so when used in combination with hydrochlorothiazide.{{cite book |editor1-first=Gary S. |editor1-last=Firestein |editor2-first=Ralph C. |editor2-last=Budd |editor3-first=Edward D. |editor3-last=Harris |editor4-first= Iain B. |editor4-last=McInnes |editor5-first=Shaun |editor5-last=Ruddy |editor6-first=John S. |editor6-last=Sergent |title=Kelley's Textbook of Rheumatology |edition=8th |year=2008 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-4160-4842-8 |chapter=Chapter 87: Gout and Hyperuricemia}} Hyperuricemia may be induced by excessive use of Vitamin D supplements. Levels of serum uric acid have been positively associated with 25(OH) D. The incidence of hyperuricemia increased 9.4% for every 10 nmol/L increase in 25(OH) D (P < 0.001).{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Yingchao |date=2020 |title=Association between serum vitamin D and uric acid in the eastern Chinese population: a population-based cross-sectional study. |url=https://rdcu.be/cHtkQ |journal=BMC Endocr Disord |volume=20 |issue=79 |page=79 |doi=10.1186/s12902-020-00560-1 |pmid=32493273 |pmc=7268462 |access-date=21 June 2021 |doi-access=free |archive-date=10 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710063618/https://www.biomedcentral.com/epdf/10.1186/s12902-020-00560-1?sharing_token=2cW1CJCCbuDOmSgFjaRPuG_BpE1tBhCbnbw3BuzI2RPh6v_muYveTL-poMvfpyCalHaXszrUOCBZ-NGpeESiL0L0YQKZPY0oqu5huqTmGuIDlN9g0iJL3O3BCtGRpPDqRBNWnHFNYtFJW0A94ysz7f5HqEtewOugX5HVi3vR3AE%3D |url-status=live }}

File:Harnsäure Ketoform.svg]]

Gout is a disorder of purine metabolism, and occurs when its final metabolite, uric acid, crystallizes in the form of monosodium urate, precipitating and forming deposits (tophi) in joints, on tendons, and in the surrounding tissues. Microscopic tophi may be walled off by a ring of proteins, which blocks interaction of the crystals with cells and therefore avoids inflammation.{{cite journal |last1=Liu-Bryan |first1=Ru |last2=Terkeltaub |first2=Robert |date=2006 |title=Evil humors take their Toll as innate immunity makes gouty joints TREM-ble |journal=Arthritis & Rheumatism |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=383–386 |doi=10.1002/art.21634 |pmid=16447213 |doi-access=free }} Naked crystals may break out of walled-off tophi due to minor physical damage to the joint, medical or surgical stress, or rapid changes in uric acid levels. When they break through the tophi, they trigger a local immune-mediated inflammatory reaction in macrophages, which is initiated by the NLRP3 inflammasome protein complex. Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome recruits the enzyme caspase 1, which converts pro-interleukin 1β into active interleukin 1β, one of the key proteins in the inflammatory cascade.{{cite journal|last1=Dalbeth|first1=N|author1-link= Nicola Dalbeth |last2=Merriman|first2=TR|last3=Stamp|first3=LK|title=Gout|journal=Lancet|date=April 2016|volume=388|issue=10055|pages=2039–2052|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00346-9|pmid=27112094|s2cid=208790780|type=Review}} An evolutionary loss of urate oxidase (uricase), which breaks down uric acid, in humans and higher primates has made this condition common.

The triggers for precipitation of uric acid are not well understood. While it may crystallize at normal levels, it is more likely to do so as levels increase.{{cite journal |vauthors=Virsaladze DK, Tetradze LO, Dzhavashvili LV, Esaliia NG, Tananashvili DE |title=[Levels of uric acid in serum in patients with metabolic syndrome] |language=ru |journal=Georgian Med News|issue=146 |pages=35–37 |year=2007 |pmid=17595458 |trans-title=Levels of uric acid in serum in patients with metabolic syndrome }} Other triggers believed to be important in acute episodes of arthritis include cool temperatures, rapid changes in uric acid levels, acidosis, articular hydration and extracellular matrix proteins.{{cite journal|vauthors=Moyer RA, John DS | title = Acute gout precipitated by total parenteral nutrition| journal = The Journal of Rheumatology| volume = 30| issue = 4| pages = 849–850| year = 2003| pmid = 12672211}}{{cite journal|vauthors=Halabe A, Sperling O | title = Uric acid nephrolithiasis| journal = Mineral and Electrolyte Metabolism| volume = 20| issue = 6| pages = 424–431| year = 1994| pmid = 7783706}} The increased precipitation at low temperatures partly explains why the joints in the feet are most commonly affected. Rapid changes in uric acid may occur due to factors including trauma, surgery, chemotherapy and diuretics. The starting or increasing of urate-lowering medications can lead to an acute attack of gout with febuxostat of a particularly high risk.{{cite web |title=Gout |url=https://cks.nice.org.uk/gout#!scenario:1 |website=NICE |access-date=22 August 2019 |archive-date=28 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028200324/http://cks.nice.org.uk/gout#!scenario:1 |url-status=live }} Calcium channel blockers and losartan are associated with a lower risk of gout compared to other medications for hypertension.{{cite journal|vauthors=Choi HK, Soriano LC, Zhang Y, Rodríguez LA | title=Antihypertensive drugs and risk of incident gout among patients with hypertension: population based case-control study | journal=BMJ | year= 2012 | volume= 344 |pages= d8190 | pmid=22240117 | doi=10.1136/bmj.d8190 | pmc=3257215}}

{{Synovial fluid analysis}}

Gout may be diagnosed and treated without further investigations in someone with hyperuricemia and the classic acute arthritis of the base of the great toe (known as podagra). Synovial fluid analysis should be done if the diagnosis is in doubt.{{cite journal|last1=Qaseem|first1=A|last2=McLean|first2=RM|last3=Starkey|first3=M|last4=Forciea|first4=MA|last5=Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of|first5=Physicians.|title=Diagnosis of Acute Gout: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|date=3 January 2017|volume=166|issue=1|pages=52–57|pmid=27802479|doi=10.7326/m16-0569|doi-access=free}} Plain X-rays are usually normal and are not useful for confirming a diagnosis of early gout. They may show signs of chronic gout such as bone erosion.

A definitive diagnosis of gout is based upon the identification of monosodium urate crystals in synovial fluid or a tophus. All synovial fluid samples obtained from undiagnosed inflamed joints by arthrocentesis should be examined for these crystals. Under polarized light microscopy, they have a needle-like morphology and strong negative birefringence. This test is difficult to perform and requires a trained observer.{{cite journal |author=Schlesinger N |title=Diagnosis of gout |journal=Minerva Med. |volume=98 |issue=6 |pages=759–767 |year=2007 |pmid=18299687}} The fluid must be examined relatively soon after aspiration, as temperature and pH affect solubility.

Hyperuricemia is a classic feature of gout, but nearly half of the time gout occurs without hyperuricemia and most people with raised uric acid levels never develop gout.{{cite journal | author = Sturrock R | title = Gout. Easy to misdiagnose | journal = BMJ | volume = 320 | issue = 7228 | pages = 132–133 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10634714| doi = 10.1136/bmj.320.7228.132 | pmc = 1128728}} Thus, the diagnostic utility of measuring uric acid levels is limited. Hyperuricemia is defined as a plasma urate level greater than 420 μmol/L (7.0 mg/dL) in males and 360 μmol/L (6.0 mg/dL) in females.{{cite journal |vauthors=Sachs L, Batra KL, Zimmermann B |title=Medical implications of hyperuricemia |journal=Med Health R I |volume=92 |issue=11 |pages=353–355 |year=2009 |pmid=19999892}} Other blood tests commonly performed are white blood cell count, electrolytes, kidney function and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). However, both the white blood cells and ESR may be elevated due to gout in the absence of infection.{{cite journal |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/329958-diagnosis |title=Gout: Differential Diagnoses & Workup – eMedicine Rheumatology |website=Medscape |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725115050/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/329958-diagnosis |archive-date=25 July 2010 |date=17 January 2019 }}{{cite journal |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/808628-diagnosis |title=Gout and Pseudogout: Differential Diagnoses & Workup – eMedicine Emergency Medicine |website=Medscape |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311174806/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/808628-diagnosis |archive-date=11 March 2010 |date=17 January 2019 }} A white blood cell count as high as 40.0×10⁹/l (40,000/mm³) has been documented.

The most important differential diagnosis in gout is septic arthritis. This should be considered in those with signs of infection or those who do not improve with treatment. To help with diagnosis, a synovial fluid Gram stain and culture may be performed. Other conditions that can look similar include CPPD (pseudogout), rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, palindromic rheumatism, and reactive arthritis. Gouty tophi, in particular when not located in a joint, can be mistaken for basal cell carcinoma{{cite journal |vauthors=Jordan DR, Belliveau MJ, Brownstein S, McEachren T, Kyrollos M |title=Medial canthal tophus |journal=Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=403–404 |year=2008 |pmid=18806664 |doi=10.1097/IOP.0b013e3181837a31 }} or other neoplasms.{{cite journal |vauthors=Sano K, Kohakura Y, Kimura K, Ozeki S |title=Atypical Triggering at the Wrist due to Intratendinous Infiltration of Tophaceous Gout |journal=Hand (N Y) |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=78–80 |date=March 2009 |pmid=18780009 |doi=10.1007/s11552-008-9120-4 |pmc=2654956}}

File:Light microscopy of a touch preparation of a gout tophus, showing urate crystals.jpg|Light microscopy of a touch preparation of a gout tophus, showing needle-shaped crystals.

File:Birefringence microscopy of gout, annotated.jpg|Uric acid crystals in polarized light, showing negative birefringence, with yellow color when aligned parallel to the axis of the red compensator, and blue when aligned perpendicularly to it.{{cite web |url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/329958-workup |title=Gout and Pseudogout Workup |first=Bruce M |last=Rothschild |website=Medscape |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008034412/https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/329958-workup |url-status=live }} Updated: Jun 30, 2020

File:Birefringence microscopy of pseudogout, annotated.jpg|In contrast, CPPD (pseudogout) displays rhombus-shaped crystals with positive birefringence.

File:Gichtfuss im Roentgenbild 002.png|Gout on X-rays of a left foot in the metatarsal-phalangeal joint of the big toe. Note also the soft tissue swelling at the lateral border of the foot.

Risk of gout attacks can be lowered by complete abstinence from drinking alcoholic beverages, reducing the intake of fructose (e.g. high fructose corn syrup),{{cite journal |vauthors=Jamnik J, Rehman S, Blanco Mejia S, de Souza RJ, Khan TA, Leiter LA, Wolever TM, Kendall CW, Jenkins DJ, Sievenpiper JL |title=Fructose intake and risk of gout and hyperuricemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies |journal=BMJ Open |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=e013191 |date=October 2016 |pmid=27697882 |pmc=5073537 |doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013191 }} sucrose, and purine-rich foods of animal origin, such as organ meats and seafood. Eating dairy products, vitamin C-rich foods, coffee, and cherries may help prevent gout attacks, as does losing weight.{{cite journal|last1=Bitik|first1=B|last2=Öztürk|first2=MA|title=An old disease with new insights: Update on diagnosis and treatment of gout|journal=European Journal of Rheumatology|date=June 2014|volume=1|issue=2|pages=72–77|pmid=27708879|doi=10.5152/eurjrheumatol.2014.021|pmc=5042282}} Gout may be secondary to sleep apnea via the release of purines from oxygen-starved cells. Treatment of apnea can lessen the occurrence of attacks.{{cite journal|pmc=2654686|year=2009|last1=Abrams|first1=B|title=Sleep Apnea as a Cause of Gout Flares|journal=The Medscape Journal of Medicine|volume=11|issue=1|pages=3|pmid=19295924}}

As of 2020, allopurinol is generally the recommended preventative treatment if medications are used.{{cite journal|last1=FitzGerald |first1=John D. |last2=Dalbeth |first2=Nicola |last3=Mikuls |first3=Ted |last4=Brignardello-Petersen |first4=Romina |last5=Guyatt |first5=Gordon |last6=Abeles |first6=Aryeh M. |last7=Gelber |first7=Allan C. |last8=Harrold |first8=Leslie R. |last9=Khanna |first9=Dinesh |last10=King |first10=Charles |last11=Levy |first11=Gerald |last12=Libbey |first12=Caryn |last13=Mount |first13=David |last14=Pillinger |first14=Michael H. |last15=Rosenthal |first15=Ann |last16=Singh |first16=Jasvinder A. |last17=Sims |first17=James Edward |last18=Smith |first18=Benjamin J. |last19=Wenger |first19=Neil S. |last20=Bae |first20=Sangmee Sharon |last21=Danve |first21=Abhijeet |last22=Khanna |first22=Puja P. |last23=Kim |first23=Seoyoung C. |last24=Lenert |first24=Aleksander |last25=Poon |first25=Samuel |last26=Qasim |first26=Anila |last27=Sehra |first27=Shiv T. |last28=Sharma |first28=Tarun Sudhir Kumar |last29=Toprover |first29=Michael |last30=Turgunbaev |first30=Marat |last31=Zeng |first31=Linan |last32=Zhang |first32=Mary Ann |last33=Turner |first33=Amy S. |last34=Neogi |first34=Tuhina |title=2020 American College of Rheumatology Guideline for the Management of Gout |journal=Arthritis & Rheumatology |date=11 May 2020 |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=879–895 |doi=10.1002/art.41247|pmid=32390306 |doi-access=free |hdl=2027.42/155484 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Dakkak M, Lanney H |title=Management of Gout: Update from the American College of Rheumatology |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=104 |issue=2 |pages=209–210 |date=August 2021 |pmid=34383428 |doi= |url=}} A number of other medications may occasionally be considered to prevent further episodes of gout, including probenecid, febuxostat, benzbromarone, and colchicine.{{cite journal|last1=Dalbeth|first1=N|last2=Merriman|first2=TR|last3=Stamp|first3=LK|title=Gout|journal=Lancet|date=22 October 2016|volume=388|issue=10055|pages=2039–2052|pmid=27112094|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00346-9|s2cid=208790780}}{{cite journal|last1=Kydd|first1=Alison SR|last2=Seth|first2=Rakhi|last3=Buchbinder|first3=Rachelle|last4=Edwards|first4=Christopher J|last5=Bombardier|first5=Claire|date=14 November 2014|title=Uricosuric medications for chronic gout|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=11|pages=CD010457|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd010457.pub2|pmid=25392987|issn=1465-1858|pmc=11262558}} Long term medications are not recommended until a person has had two attacks of gout, unless destructive joint changes, tophi, or urate nephropathy exist.{{cite journal |vauthors=Tausche AK, Jansen TL, Schröder HE, Bornstein SR, Aringer M, Müller-Ladner U |title=Gout – current diagnosis and treatment |journal=Dtsch Ärztebl Int |volume=106 |issue=34–35 |pages=549–555 |date=August 2009 |pmid=19795010 |pmc=2754667 |doi=10.3238/arztebl.2009.0549 }} It is not until this point that medications are cost-effective. They are not usually started until one to two weeks after an acute flare has resolved, due to theoretical concerns of worsening the attack. They are often used in combination with either an NSAID or colchicine for the first three to six months.

While it has been recommended that urate-lowering measures should be increased until serum uric acid levels are below 300–360 μmol/L (5.0–6.0 mg/dL),{{cite journal|last1=Ruoff|first1=G|last2=Edwards|first2=NL|title=Overview of Serum Uric Acid Treatment Targets in Gout: Why Less Than 6 mg/dL?|journal=Postgraduate Medicine|date=September 2016|volume=128|issue=7|pages=706–715|pmid=27558643|doi=10.1080/00325481.2016.1221732|doi-access=free}} there is little evidence to support this practice over simply putting people on a standard dose of allopurinol.{{cite journal |last1=Qaseem |first1=Amir |last2=Harris |first2=Russell P. |last3=Forciea |first3=Mary Ann |title=Management of Acute and Recurrent Gout: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians |journal=Annals of Internal Medicine |date=1 November 2016 |volume=166 |issue=1 |pages=58–68 |doi=10.7326/M16-0570 |pmid=27802508 |s2cid=207538623 |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/c534ft390 |doi-access=free |access-date=16 October 2021 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521083827/https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/c534ft390 |url-status=live }} If these medications are in chronic use at the time of an attack, it is recommended that they be continued. Levels that cannot be brought below 6.0 mg/dL while attacks continue indicates refractory gout.{{cite journal|last=Ali|first=S|author2=Lally, EV|title=Treatment failure gout|journal=Medicine and Health, Rhode Island|date=November 2009|volume=92|issue=11|pages=369–371|pmid=19999896}}

While historically it is not recommended to start allopurinol during an acute attack of gout, this practice appears acceptable.{{cite journal|last1=Robinson|first1=PC|last2=Stamp|first2=LK|title=The management of gout: Much has changed|journal=Australian Family Physician|date=May 2016|volume=45|issue=5|pages=299–302|pmid=27166465}} Allopurinol blocks uric acid production, and is the most commonly used agent. Long term therapy is safe and well-tolerated and can be used in people with renal impairment or urate stones, although hypersensitivity occurs in a small number of individuals. The HLA-B*58:01 allele of the human leukocyte antigen B (HLA-B) is strongly associated with severe cutaneous adverse reactions during treatment with allopurinol and is most common among Asian subpopulations, notably those of Korean, Han-Chinese, or Thai descent.{{Citation |last1=Dean |first1=Laura |title=Allopurinol Therapy and HLA-B*58:01 Genotype |date=2012 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK127547/ |work=Medical Genetics Summaries |editor-last=Pratt |editor-first=Victoria M. |place=Bethesda (MD) |publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information (US) |pmid=28520356 |access-date=29 November 2022 |last2=Kane |first2=Megan |editor2-last=Scott |editor2-first=Stuart A. |editor3-last=Pirmohamed |editor3-first=Munir |editor4-last=Esquivel |editor4-first=Bernard |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615144550/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK127547/ |url-status=live }}

Febuxostat is only recommended in those who cannot tolerate allopurinol.{{cite web|title=Febuxostat for the management of hyperuricaemia in people with gout Guidance and guidelines|url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA164|website=www.nice.org.uk|access-date=28 March 2017|date=17 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195736/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA164|archive-date=28 March 2017}} There are concerns about more deaths with febuxostat compared to allopurinol.{{cite web |title=Drug Safety and Availability – FDA adds Boxed Warning for increased risk of death with gout medicine Uloric (febuxostat) |url=https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm631182.htm |website=FDA |access-date=26 February 2019 |language=en |date=21 February 2019 |archive-date=23 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423022609/https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm631182.htm |url-status=dead }} Febuxostat may also increase the rate of gout flares during early treatment.{{cite journal|last1=Tayar|first1=Jean H|last2=Lopez-Olivo|first2=Maria Angeles|last3=Suarez-Almazor|first3=Maria E|date=14 November 2012|title=Febuxostat for treating chronic gout|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2012|issue=11 |pages=CD008653|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd008653.pub2|pmid=23152264|pmc=4058893|issn=1465-1858}} However, there is tentative evidence that febuxostat may bring down urate levels more than allopurinol.{{cite journal|last1=Seth|first1=Rakhi|last2=Kydd|first2=Alison SR|last3=Buchbinder|first3=Rachelle|last4=Bombardier|first4=Claire|last5=Edwards|first5=Christopher J|date=14 October 2014|title=Allopurinol for chronic gout|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2014|issue=10|pages=CD006077|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd006077.pub3|pmid=25314636|pmc=8915170 |issn=1465-1858}}

Probenecid appears to be less effective than allopurinol and is a second line agent. Probenecid may be used if undersecretion of uric acid is present (24-hour urine uric acid less than 800 mg).{{cite book |first1=Elizabeth D |last1=Agabegi |author2=Agabegi, Steven S. |title=Step-Up to Medicine (Step-Up Series) |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2008 |page=251 |isbn=978-0-7817-7153-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y13wgJyQwkEC&pg=PA251 |access-date=10 January 2016 |archive-date=10 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110061630/https://books.google.com/books?id=y13wgJyQwkEC&pg=PA251 |url-status=live }} It is, however, not recommended if a person has a history of kidney stones. Probenecid can be used in a combined therapy with allopurinol is more effective than allopurinol monotherapy.{{Cite journal |url=https://academic.oup.com/rheumatology/article/53/12/2131/1802918 |title=Treat to target in gout by combining two modes of action |journal=Rheumatology |date=December 2014 |volume=53 |issue=12 |pages=2131–2133 |doi=10.1093/rheumatology/keu043 |access-date=7 July 2024 |archive-date=10 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710063618/https://academic.oup.com/rheumatology/article/53/12/2131/1802918 |url-status=live |pmid=24758888 | vauthors = Jansen TL }}{{cite journal | url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00003088-200847020-00004 | doi=10.2165/00003088-200847020-00004 | title=Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Interaction between Allopurinol and Probenecid??in Healthy Subjects | date=2008 | journal=Clinical Pharmacokinetics | volume=47 | issue=2 | pages=111–118 | pmid=18193917 | vauthors=Stocker SL, Williams KM, McLachlan AJ, Graham GG, Day RO | access-date=7 July 2024 | archive-date=7 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180607180012/https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165%2F00003088-200847020-00004 | url-status=live }}{{cite journal | pmid=25314636 | date=2014 | title=Allopurinol for chronic gout | journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue=10 | pages=CD006077 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006077.pub3 | pmc=8915170 | vauthors = Seth R, Kydd AS, Buchbinder R, Bombardier C, Edwards CJ }}

Pegloticase is an option for the 3% of people who are intolerant to other medications.{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm225810.htm |title=FDA approves new drug for gout |website=FDA |date=14 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917103100/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm225810.htm |archive-date=17 September 2010 }} It is a third line agent. Pegloticase is given as an intravenous infusion every two weeks, and reduces uric acid levels.{{cite journal|vauthors=Sundy JS, Baraf HS, Yood RA, Edwards NL, Gutierrez-Urena SR, Treadwell EL, Vázquez-Mellado J, White WB, Lipsky PE, Horowitz Z, Huang W, Maroli AN, Waltrip RW, Hamburger SA, Becker MA|title=Efficacy and tolerability of pegloticase for the treatment of chronic gout in patients refractory to conventional treatment: two randomized controlled trials|journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association|date=17 August 2011|volume=306|issue=7|pages=711–720|pmid=21846852|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1169|doi-access=free|hdl=10342/7960|hdl-access=free}} Pegloticase is useful decreasing tophi but has a high rate of side effects and many people develop resistance to it. Using lesinurad {{Val|400|u=mg}} plus febuxostat is more beneficial for tophi resolution than lesinural {{Val|200|u=mL}} with febuxostat, with similar side effects. Lesinural plus allopurinol is not effective for tophi resolution.{{cite journal|vauthors=Sriranganathan MK, Vinik O, Pardo Pardo J, Bombardier C, Edwards CJ|date=11 August 2021|title=Interventions for tophi in gout|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2021|issue=8|pages=CD010069|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010069.pub3|pmid=34379791|pmc=8406833}} Potential side effects include kidney stones, anemia and joint pain.{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Amy|last2=Singh|first2=Jasvinder A|date=17 March 2010|title=Pegloticase for chronic gout|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2010 |issue=3|pages=CD008335|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd008335.pub2|pmid=20238366|pmc=6599816|issn=1465-1858}} In 2016, it was withdrawn from the European market.{{cite web|title=Krystexxa|url=http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/medicines/human/medicines/002208/human_med_001591.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058001d124|website=www.ema.europa.eu|access-date=28 March 2017|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328200116/http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages%2Fmedicines%2Fhuman%2Fmedicines%2F002208%2Fhuman_med_001591.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058001d124|archive-date=28 March 2017}}{{cite journal|title=Pegloticase: withdrawal of its EU marketing authorisation is welcome|journal=Prescrire International|date=March 2017|volume=26|issue=180|page=71}}

Lesinurad reduces blood uric acid levels by preventing uric acid absorption in the kidneys.{{cite web |title=Zurampic |url=https://www.drugs.com/pro/zurampic.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=14 October 2018 |date=1 January 2018 |archive-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015002816/https://www.drugs.com/pro/zurampic.html |url-status=live }} It was approved in the United States for use together with allopurinol, among those who were unable to reach their uric acid level targets.{{cite web |title=Drug Trial Snapshot: Zurampic |url=https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/InformationOnDrugs/ucm491548.htm |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=14 October 2018 |date=22 December 2015 |archive-date=8 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208044044/https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/InformationOnDrugs/ucm491548.htm |url-status=dead }} Side effects include kidney problems and kidney stones.{{cite web |title=Zurampic |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/documents/overview/zurampic-epar-summary-public_en.pdf |publisher=European Medicines Agency |access-date=14 October 2018 |date=18 February 2016 |archive-date=28 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828094215/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/overview/zurampic-epar-summary-public_en.pdf |url-status=live }}

The initial aim of treatment is to settle the symptoms of an acute attack.{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang W, Doherty M, Bardin T, et al |title=EULAR evidence based recommendations for gout. Part II: Management. Report of a task force of the EULAR Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics (ESCISIT) |journal=Ann. Rheum. Dis. |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=1312–1324 |date=October 2006 |pmid=16707532 |pmc=1798308 |doi=10.1136/ard.2006.055269}} Repeated attacks can be prevented by medications that reduce serum uric acid levels. Tentative evidence supports the application of ice for 20 to 30 minutes several times a day to decrease pain.{{cite journal |last1=Moi |first1=JH |last2=Sriranganathan |first2=MK |last3=Edwards |first3=CJ|last4=Buchbinder|first4=R|title=Lifestyle interventions for acute gout |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=4 November 2013 |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=CD010519 |pmid=24186771 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010519.pub2|pmc=9942538 }} Options for acute treatment include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), colchicine, and glucocorticoids. While glucocorticoids and NSAIDs work equally well, glucocorticoids may be safer.{{cite journal|last1=Billy|first1=CA|last2=Lim|first2=RT|last3=Ruospo|first3=M|last4=Palmer|first4=SC|last5=Strippoli|first5=GFM|title=Corticosteroid or Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs for the Treatment of Acute Gout: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials|journal=The Journal of Rheumatology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=128–136|date=1 August 2017|doi=10.3899/jrheum.170137|pmid=28765243|s2cid=8306526|url=http://www.jrheum.org/content/jrheum/45/1/128.full.pdf|access-date=7 June 2020|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807040103/https://www.jrheum.org/content/jrheum/45/1/128.full.pdf|url-status=live}} Options for prevention include allopurinol, febuxostat, and probenecid. Lowering uric acid levels can cure the disease. Treatment of associated health problems is also important. Lifestyle interventions have been poorly studied. It is unclear whether dietary supplements have an effect in people with gout.{{cite journal |last1=Andrés |first1=Mariano |last2=Sivera |first2=Francisca |last3=Buchbinder |first3=Rachelle |last4=Pardo Pardo |first4=Jordi |last5=Carmona |first5=Loreto |title=Dietary supplements for chronic gout |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=12 November 2021 |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=CD010156 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010156.pub3 |doi-access=free|pmid=34767649 |pmc=8589461 |issn=1469-493X}}

NSAIDs are the usual first-line treatment for gout. No specific agent is significantly more or less effective than any other. Improvement may be seen within four hours and treatment is recommended for one to two weeks. They are not recommended for those with certain other health problems, such as gastrointestinal bleeding, kidney failure, or heart failure. While indometacin has historically been the most commonly used NSAID, an alternative, such as ibuprofen, may be preferred due to its better side effect profile in the absence of superior effectiveness.{{cite journal |vauthors=Laubscher T, Dumont Z, Regier L, Jensen B |title=Taking the stress out of managing gout |journal=Can Fam Physician |volume=55 |issue=12 |pages=1209–1212 |date=December 2009 |pmid=20008601 |pmc=2793228}} For those at risk of gastric side effects from NSAIDs, an additional proton pump inhibitor may be given.{{cite journal|last1=Cronstein|first1=BN|last2=Terkeltaub|first2=R|title=The inflammatory process of gout and its treatment|journal=Arthritis Research & Therapy|date=2006|volume=8|issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S3|pmid=16820042|doi=10.1186/ar1908|pmc=3226108 |doi-access=free }} There is some evidence that COX-2 inhibitors may work as well as nonselective NSAIDs for acute gout attack with fewer side effects.{{cite journal|last1=van Durme|first1=CM|last2=Wechalekar|first2=MD|last3=Landewé|first3=RB|title=Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for treatment of acute gout|journal=JAMA|date=9 June 2015|volume=313|issue=22|pages=2276–2277|pmid=26057289|doi=10.1001/jama.2015.1881}}{{cite journal |last1=van Durme |first1=Caroline Mpg |last2=Wechalekar |first2=Mihir D. |last3=Landewé |first3=Robert Bm |last4=Pardo Pardo |first4=Jordi |last5=Cyril |first5=Sheila |last6=van der Heijde |first6=Désirée |last7=Buchbinder |first7=Rachelle |date=9 December 2021 |title=Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for acute gout |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2021 |issue=12 |pages=CD010120 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010120.pub3 |issn=1469-493X |pmc=8656463 |pmid=34882311}}{{Cite journal |last1=Roddy |first1=Edward |last2=Bajpai |first2=Ram |last3=Forrester |first3=Harry |last4=Partington |first4=Richard James |last5=Mallen |first5=Christian D. |last6=Clarson |first6=Lorna Elise |last7=Padmanabhan |first7=Nishita |last8=Whittle |first8=Rebecca |last9=Muller |first9=Sara |date=1 December 2023 |title=Safety of colchicine and NSAID prophylaxis when initiating urate-lowering therapy for gout: propensity score-matched cohort studies in the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink |url=https://ard.bmj.com/content/82/12/1618 |journal=Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases |language=en |volume=82 |issue=12 |pages=1618–1625 |doi=10.1136/ard-2023-224154 |issn=0003-4967 |pmc=10646835 |pmid=37788904 |access-date=16 February 2024 |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216155634/https://ard.bmj.com/content/82/12/1618 |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |date=6 February 2024 |title=How common are side-effects of treatment to prevent gout flares when starting allopurinol? |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/how-common-are-side-effects-of-treatment-to-prevent-gout-flares-when-starting-allopurinol/ |journal=NIHR Evidence |doi=10.3310/nihrevidence_62005 |s2cid=267539627 |access-date=16 February 2024 |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216155634/https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/how-common-are-side-effects-of-treatment-to-prevent-gout-flares-when-starting-allopurinol/ |url-status=live }}

Colchicine is an alternative for those unable to tolerate NSAIDs. At high doses, side effects (primarily gastrointestinal upset) limit its usage.{{cite web | title=Information for Healthcare Professionals: New Safety Information for Colchicine (marketed as Colcrys) | url=https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/DrugSafetyInformationforHeathcareProfessionals/ucm174315.htm | publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018113639/https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/DrugSafetyInformationforHeathcareProfessionals/ucm174315.htm | archive-date=18 October 2009 }} At lower doses, which are still effective, it is well tolerated.{{cite journal|vauthors=McKenzie BJ, Wechalekar MD, Johnston RV, Schlesinger N, Buchbinder R|date=26 August 2021|title=Colchicine for acute gout|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2021|issue=8|pages=CD006190|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006190.pub3|pmid=34438469|pmc=8407279}} Colchicine may interact with other commonly prescribed drugs, such as atorvastatin and erythromycin, among others.

Glucocorticoids have been found to be as effective as NSAIDs{{cite journal |vauthors=Man CY, Cheung IT, Cameron PA, Rainer TH |title=Comparison of oral prednisolone/paracetamol and oral indomethacin/paracetamol combination therapy in the treatment of acute goutlike arthritis: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial |journal=Annals of Emergency Medicine |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=670–677 |year=2007 |pmid=17276548 |doi=10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.11.014 |pmc=7115288 |url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/92845/1/paracetemol.pdf |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020143558/http://orca.cf.ac.uk/92845/1/paracetemol.pdf |url-status=live }} and may be used if contraindications exist for NSAIDs.{{cite journal|last1=Wechalekar|first1=Mihir D|last2=Vinik|first2=Ophir|last3=Schlesinger|first3=Naomi|last4=Buchbinder|first4=Rachelle|date=30 April 2013|title=Intra-articular glucocorticoids for acute gout|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=4|pages=CD009920|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd009920.pub2|pmid=23633379|issn=1465-1858|pmc=11847606}} They also lead to improvement when injected into the joint. A joint infection must be excluded, however, as glucocorticoids worsen this condition. There were no short-term adverse effects reported.{{cite journal|last1=Janssens|first1=Hein J|last2=Lucassen|first2=Peter LBJ|last3=Van de Laar|first3=Floris A|last4=Janssen|first4=Matthijs|last5=Van de Lisdonk|first5=Eloy H|date=23 April 2008|title=Systemic corticosteroids for acute gout|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2010|issue=2|pages=CD005521|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd005521.pub2|pmid=18425920|pmc=8276233|issn=1465-1858|url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/70896/1/70896.pdf|hdl=2066/70896|hdl-access=free|access-date=24 September 2019|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828094218/https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/70896/70896.pdf;jsessionid=1FC701B94528B3F6C1BBA1E193546020?sequence=1|url-status=live}}

Interleukin-1 inhibitors, such as canakinumab, showed moderate effectiveness for pain relief and reduction of joint swelling, but have increased risk of adverse events, such as back pain, headache, and increased blood pressure.{{cite journal|pmid=25177840|year=2014|last1=Sivera|first1=F|title=Interleukin-1 inhibitors for acute gout|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=9|pages=CD009993|last2=Wechalekar|first2=M. D|last3=Andrés|first3=M|last4=Buchbinder|first4=R|last5=Carmona|first5=L|volume=2014 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009993.pub2|pmc=10891421}} They, however, may work less well than usual doses of NSAIDS. The high cost of this class of drugs may also discourage their use for treating gout.

{{Further|topic=the investigational new drug|Tigulixostat}}

Without treatment, an acute attack of gout usually resolves in five to seven days; however, 60% of people have a second attack within one year. Those with gout are at increased risk of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and kidney and cardiovascular disease and thus are at increased risk of death.{{cite journal |vauthors=Kim SY, De Vera MA, Choi HK |title=Gout and mortality |journal=Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. |volume=26 |issue=5 Suppl 51 |pages=S115–S119 |year=2008 |pmid=19026153}} It is unclear whether medications that lower urate affect cardiovascular disease risks.{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=T|last2=Pope|first2=JE|title=Cardiovascular effects of urate-lowering therapies in patients with chronic gout: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Rheumatology|volume=56|issue=7|pages=1144–1153|date=30 March 2017|doi=10.1093/rheumatology/kex065|pmid=28379501|doi-access=free}} This may be partly due to its association with insulin resistance and obesity, but some of the increased risk appears to be independent.

Without treatment, episodes of acute gout may develop into chronic gout with destruction of joint surfaces, joint deformity, and painless tophi. These tophi occur in 30% of those who are untreated for five years, often in the helix of the ear, over the olecranon processes, or on the Achilles tendons. With aggressive treatment, they may dissolve. Kidney stones also frequently complicate gout, affecting between 10 and 40% of people, and occur due to low urine pH promoting the precipitation of uric acid. Other forms of chronic kidney dysfunction may occur.

Tophaceous gout of Lt MTP joint, elder female patient, Thailand.jpg| Gouty tophus of left metatarsophalangeal joint, causing hallux valgus

File:Case 30-top.jpg|Gouty tophi presenting as nodules on the finger and helix of the ear

Image:ChronicGout.jpg|Tophus of the knee

Image:Case 30-bottom.jpg|Tophii on the toe and ankle

Image:Tophigout.JPG|Gout complicated by ruptured tophi, the exudate of which tested positive for uric acid crystals

File:Gout Comparison.jpg|Gout in the big toe of left foot, compared to the healthy right foot

Image:GoutCropped2016.jpg|Gout in the joint of the big toe

File:Gross pathology of tophus.jpg|Gross pathology of a large tophus

Gout affects around 1–2% of people in the Western world at some point in their lifetimes and is becoming more common. Some 5.8 million people were affected in 2013.{{cite journal |title=Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 |journal=Lancet |volume=386 |issue=9995 |pages=743–800 |date=August 2015 |pmid=26063472 |pmc=4561509 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692-4 |url=|last1=Vos |first1=Theo |last2=Barber |first2=Ryan M. |last3=Bell |first3=Brad |last4=Bertozzi-Villa |first4=Amelia |last5=Biryukov |first5=Stan |last6=Bolliger |first6=Ian |last7=Charlson |first7=Fiona |last8=Davis |first8=Adrian |last9=Degenhardt |first9=Louisa |last10=Dicker |first10=Daniel |last11=Duan |first11=Leilei |last12=Erskine |first12=Holly |last13=Feigin |first13=Valery L. |last14=Ferrari |first14=Alize J. |last15=Fitzmaurice |first15=Christina |last16=Fleming |first16=Thomas |last17=Graetz |first17=Nicholas |last18=Guinovart |first18=Caterina |last19=Haagsma |first19=Juanita |last20=Hansen |first20=Gillian M. |last21=Hanson |first21=Sarah Wulf |last22=Heuton |first22=Kyle R. |last23=Higashi |first23=Hideki |last24=Kassebaum |first24=Nicholas |last25=Kyu |first25=Hmwe |last26=Laurie |first26=Evan |last27=Liang |first27=Xiofeng |last28=Lofgren |first28=Katherine |last29=Lozano |first29=Rafael |last30=MacIntyre |first30=Michael F. }} Rates of gout approximately doubled between 1990 and 2010.{{cite journal |author=Terkeltaub R |title=Update on gout: new therapeutic strategies and options |journal=Nature Reviews Rheumatology |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=30–38 |date=January 2010 |pmid=20046204 |doi=10.1038/nrrheum.2009.236 |s2cid=19235998 }} This rise is believed to be due to increasing life expectancy, changes in diet and an increase in diseases associated with gout, such as metabolic syndrome and high blood pressure.{{cite journal |last=Weaver |first=AL |s2cid=40262260 |title=Epidemiology of gout |journal=Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine |date=July 2008 |volume=75 |issue=Suppl 5 |pages=S9–S12 |pmid=18819329 |doi=10.3949/ccjm.75.Suppl_5.S9|doi-broken-date=20 March 2025 }} Factors that influence rates of gout include age, race, and the season of the year. In men over 30 and women over 50, rates are 2%.{{cite journal |vauthors=Winzenberg T, Buchbinder R |title=Cochrane Musculoskeletal Group review: acute gout. Steroids or NSAIDs? Let this overview from the Cochrane Group help you decide what's best for your patient |journal=J Fam Pract |volume=58 |issue=7 |pages=E1–E4 |year=2009 |pmid=19607767 }}

In the United States, gout is twice as likely in males of African descent than those of European descent.{{cite web | author=Rheumatology Therapeutics Medical Center | title=What Are the Risk Factors for Gout? | url=http://www.arthritisconsult.com/gout.html#risk | access-date=26 January 2007 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070325104830/http://www.arthritisconsult.com/gout.html#risk | archive-date=25 March 2007 }} Rates are high among Polynesians, but the disease is rare in aboriginal Australians, despite a higher mean uric acid serum concentration in the latter group.{{cite journal |last1=Roberts-Thomson |first1=R. A |last2=Roberts-Thomson |first2=P J |title=Rheumatic disease and the Australian Aborigine |journal=Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases |date=1 May 1999 |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=266–270 |doi=10.1136/ard.58.5.266 |pmid=10225809 |pmc=1752880 }} It has become common in China, Polynesia, and urban Sub-Saharan Africa. Some studies found that attacks of gout occur more frequently in the spring. This has been attributed to seasonal changes in diet, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and temperature.{{cite journal |author=Fam AG |title=What is new about crystals other than monosodium urate? |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=228–234 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10803754 |doi= 10.1097/00002281-200005000-00013}}

Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore have relatively higher prevalence of gout. A study based on the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD) estimated that 4.92% of Taiwanese residents have gout in 2004. A survey hold by the Hong Kong government found that 5.1% of Hong Kong resident between 45–59 years and 6.1% of those older than 60 years have gout. A study hold in Singapore found that 2,117 in 52,322 people between 45–74 years have gout, roughly equals to 4.1%.{{cite journal | last1=Kuo | first1=Chang-Fu | last2=Grainge | first2=Matthew J. | last3=Zhang | first3=Weiya | last4=Doherty | first4=Michael | title=Global epidemiology of gout: prevalence, incidence and risk factors | journal=Nature Reviews Rheumatology | volume=11 | issue=11 | date=2015-07-07 | issn=1759-4790 | doi=10.1038/nrrheum.2015.91 | pages=649–662| pmid=26150127 }}

File:Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). Natuurkundige te Delft Rijksmuseum SK-A-957.jpeg described the microscopic appearance of uric acid crystals in 1679.]]

The English term "gout" first occurs in the work of Randolphus of Bocking, around 1200 AD.{{cite book

|last1 = Pierre-Jerome

|first1 = Claude

|date = 11 May 2022

|chapter = 8.5: Gout and Charcot neuroarthropathy

|title = The Essentials of Charcot Neuroarthropathy: Biomechanics, Pathophysiology, and MRI Findings

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=24NTEAAAQBAJ

|publication-place = Amsterdam

|publisher = Elsevier

|page = 233

|isbn = 9780323995788

|access-date = 28 April 2024

|quote = [...] Randolphus of Bocking [...] was the first to use the word 'gout' to express the clinical signs of podagra. Bocking was the domestic chaplain to Bishop of Chichester (1197-1258).

|archive-date = 28 April 2024

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240428051919/https://books.google.com/books?id=24NTEAAAQBAJ

|url-status = live

}}

It derives from the Latin word {{lang | la | gutta}}, meaning "a drop" (of liquid). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this originates from humorism and "the notion of the 'dropping' of a morbid material from the blood in and around the joints".{{cite web |url= http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/80290 |title= gout, n.1 |website= Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition, 1989 |access-date= 18 September 2011 |archive-date= 8 May 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200508070657/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=F7E81FB8C2DA5A2C4521515FB61B4533?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F80290 |url-status= live }}

Gout has been known since antiquity. Historically, wits have referred to it as "the king of diseases and the disease of kings"{{cite web |url= https://www.forbes.com/2003/04/01/cx_cd_0401feat.html |title=The Disease Of Kings |website= Forbes.com |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170901100910/https://www.forbes.com/2003/04/01/cx_cd_0401feat.html |archive-date= 1 September 2017 | quote = It has been referred to, maybe a touch inaccurately, as 'The disease of kings and the king of diseases.'}} or as "rich man's disease". The Ebers papyrus and the Edwin Smith papyrus, ({{circa|1550 BC}}) each mention arthritis of the first metacarpophalangeal joint as a distinct type of arthritis. These ancient manuscripts cite (now missing) Egyptian texts about gout that are claimed to have been written 1,000 years earlier and ascribed to Imhotep.Schwartz, Stephan A. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6685328_Disease_of_Distinction/link/5b1f73afa6fdcc69745c3abd/download?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIn19 "Disease of distinction."] Explore 2, no. 6 (2006): 515–519. - "Both the Ebers and Edwin Smith Papyri describe a condition that is clearly gout.[...] They were written about 1552 BC but contain information taken from texts a thousand years earlier, and ascribed to Imhotep, a kind of ancient world Leonardo da Vinci, and the great overarching figure of Egyptian medicine." Greek physician Hippocrates around 400 BC commented on it in his Aphorisms, noting its absence in eunuchs and premenopausal women.{{cite journal|last=Pillinger |first=MH |author2= Rosenthal P |author3= Abeles AM |title= Hyperuricemia and gout: new insights into pathogenesis and treatment |journal=Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases |volume= 65 |issue= 3 |pages= 215–221 |year= 2007 |url= http://www.nyuhjdbulletin.org/Permalink.aspx?permalinkId=0c3ec9d1-8cc8-49d5-850d-4c5a55cb0669 |pmid= 17922673 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081216114246/http://www.nyuhjdbulletin.org/Permalink.aspx?permalinkId=0c3ec9d1-8cc8-49d5-850d-4c5a55cb0669 |archive-date=16 December 2008 }}{{cite web |url= http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/aphorisms.6.vi.html |title= The Internet Classics Archive Aphorisms by Hippocrates |access-date=27 July 2010 |website=MIT |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100707154253/http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/aphorisms.6.vi.html |archive-date= 7 July 2010 }} Aulus Cornelius Celsus (30 AD) described the linkage with alcohol, later onset in women and associated kidney problems:

{{blockquote|Again thick urine, the sediment from which is white, indicates that pain and disease are to be apprehended in the region of joints or viscera... Joint troubles in the hands and feet are very frequent and persistent, such as occur in cases of podagra and cheiragra. These seldom attack eunuchs or boys before coition with a woman, or women except those in whom the menses have become suppressed... some have obtained lifelong security by refraining from wine, mead and venery.{{cite web |url= https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/4*.html |title= On Medicine |first= A. Cornelius |last= Celsus |at= Book IV |website= University of Chicago |access-date= 19 February 2021 |archive-date= 10 July 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240710063618/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/4%2A.html |url-status= live }}}}

Benjamin Welles, an English physician, authored the first medical book on gout, A Treatise of the Gout, or Joint Evil, in 1669.{{cite book|last= Copeman |first= W.S.C.|title= A Short History of the Gout and the Rheumatic Diseases|date= 2021|publisher= University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-33947-7|page=68}} In 1683, Thomas Sydenham, an English physician, described its occurrence in the early hours of the morning and its predilection for older males:

{{blockquote|Gouty patients are, generally, either old men or men who have so worn themselves out in youth as to have brought on a premature old age—of such dissolute habits none being more common than the premature and excessive indulgence in venery and the like exhausting passions. The victim goes to bed and sleeps in good health. About two o'clock in the morning he is awakened by a severe pain in the great toe; more rarely in the heel, ankle, or instep. The pain is like that of a dislocation and yet parts feel as if cold water were poured over them. Then follows chills and shivers and a little fever... The night is passed in torture, sleeplessness, turning the part affected and perpetual change of posture; the tossing about of body being as incessant as the pain of the tortured joint and being worse as the fit comes on.{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A11102491 |title= Gout – The Affliction of Kings |website= h2g2 |publisher= BBC |date= December 23, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100911065930/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A11102491 |archive-date= September 11, 2010 }}}}

In the 18th century, Thomas Marryat distinguished different manifestations of gout:

The Gout is a chronical disease most commonly affecting the feet. If it attacks the knees, it is called {{linktext|Gonagra}}; if the hands, {{linktext|Chiragra}}; if the elbow, Onagra; if the shoulder, {{linktext|Omagra}}; if the back or loins, Lumbago.{{cite book

|last1 = Marryat

|first1 = Thomas

|author-link1 = Thomas Marryat

|year = 1798

|orig-date = 1758

|title = Therapeutics: Or, the Art of Healing: To which is Added, a Glossary of the Most Difficult Words

|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Xfg2AQAAMAAJ

|edition = 14

|publication-place = Bristol

|publisher = R. Edwards

|page = 168

|access-date = 28 April 2024

|archive-date = 28 April 2024

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240428051831/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xfg2AQAAMAAJ

|url-status = live

}}

Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek first described the microscopic appearance of urate crystals in 1679. In 1848, English physician Alfred Baring Garrod identified excess uric acid in the blood as the cause of gout.{{cite journal | author= Storey GD |title= Alfred Baring Garrod (1819–1907) |journal=Rheumatology |volume=40 |issue=10 |pages=1189–1190 |date=October 2001 |pmid=11600751 | doi= 10.1093/rheumatology/40.10.1189 |doi-access=free}}

Gout is rare in most other animals due to their ability to produce uricase, which breaks down uric acid.{{cite journal |vauthors=Agudelo CA, Wise CM |title=Gout: diagnosis, pathogenesis, and clinical manifestations |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=234–239 |year=2001 |pmid=11333355 |doi= 10.1097/00002281-200105000-00015|s2cid=34502097 }} Humans and other great apes do not have this ability; thus, gout is common. Other animals with uricase include fish, amphibians and most non-primate mammals.{{cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=HK|last2=Mount|first2=DB|last3=Reginato|first3=AM|last4=American College of|first4=Physicians|last5=American Physiological|first5=Society|title=Pathogenesis of gout|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|date=4 October 2005|volume=143|issue=7|pages=499–516|pmid=16204163|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-143-7-200510040-00009|s2cid=194570}} The Tyrannosaurus rex specimen known as "Sue" is believed to have had gout.{{cite journal | last=Rothschild | first=BM | author2=Tanke D | author3=Carpenter K | title=Tyrannosaurs suffered from gout | journal=Nature | volume=387 | issue=6631 | page=357 | year=1997 | doi=10.1038/387357a0 | pmid=9163417 | bibcode=1997Natur.387..357R | s2cid=1360596 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/3943065 | doi-access=free | access-date=29 September 2020 | archive-date=17 April 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417031211/https://zenodo.org/record/3943065 | url-status=live }}

A number of new medications are under study for treating gout, including anakinra, canakinumab, and rilonacept.{{cite journal |url=http://www.musculoskeletalnetwork.com/gout/content/article/1145622/1533314 |title=New therapeutic options for gout here and on the horizon |journal=Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine |date=8 March 2010 |author1=Abeles, A. M. |author2=Pillinger, M. H. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100520024113/http://www.musculoskeletalnetwork.com/gout/content/article/1145622/1533314 |archive-date=20 May 2010 |access-date=23 April 2010 }} Canakinumab may result in better outcomes than a low dose of a glucocorticoid, but costs five thousand times more.{{cite journal|last1=Sivera|first1=F|last2=Wechalekar|first2=MD|last3=Andrés|first3=M|last4=Buchbinder|first4=R|last5=Carmona|first5=L|title=Interleukin-1 inhibitors for acute gout|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=1 September 2014|volume=2014|issue=9|pages=CD009993|pmid=25177840|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009993.pub2|pmc=10891421}} A recombinant uricase enzyme (rasburicase) is available but its use is limited, as it triggers an immune response. Less antigenic versions are in development.

• List of people known as the Gouty

{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Gout}}

{{Offline|med}}

• {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Gout|volume=12|pages=289–291}}
• {{cite web | url = https://medlineplus.gov/gout.html | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine | work = MedlinePlus | title = Gout }}

{{Medical resources

| DiseasesDB = 29031

| ICD10 = {{ICD10|M|10||m|05}}

| ICD9 = {{ICD9|274.00}} {{ICD9|274.1}} {{ICD9|274.8}} {{ICD9|274.9}}

| ICDO =

| OMIM = 138900

| OMIM_mult = {{OMIM|300323||none}}

| MedlinePlus = 000422

| eMedicineSubj = emerg

| eMedicineTopic = 221

| eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|med|924}} {{eMedicine2|med|1112}} {{eMedicine2|oph|506}} {{eMedicine2|orthoped|124}} {{eMedicine2|radio|313}}

| MeshID = D006073

| RP = gout

| WO = gout

}}

{{Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Arthritis

Category:Articles containing video clips

Category:Inborn errors of purine-pyrimidine metabolism

Category:Inflammatory polyarthropathies

Category:Rheumatology

Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate (full)

Category:Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate

Category:Skin conditions resulting from errors in metabolism

Category:Steroid-responsive inflammatory conditions

Category:Uric acid

Category:Crystal deposition diseases