Harappa#Other influences

File:IVC-major-sites-2.jpg. Harappa was the centre of one of the core regions of the Indus Valley Civilization, located in central Punjab. The Harappan architecture and Harappan Civilization was one of the most developed in the old Bronze Age.]]

The Harappan Civilization has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged {{Circa|2600 BC}} along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh.{{cite book | last = Beck | first = Roger B. | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | url = https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck | url-access = registration | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | isbn = 978-0-395-87274-1 }} The civilization, with a possible writing system, urban centres, drainage infrastructure and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh near Larkana, and Harappan cities, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in the east Punjab, India in the west, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Balochistan, Pakistan in the west, have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857Michel Danino. The Lost River. Penguin India. when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found.Kenoyer, J.M., 1997, Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New insights from sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature. As early as 1826 Harappa, located in west Punjab, attracted the attention of Daya Ram Sahni, who gets credit for preliminary excavations of Harappa.

Because of the reduced sea-levels, certain regions in the late Harappan period were abandoned.{{cite book|title= The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives |first= Jane |last= Mcintosh |publisher= Routledge |year=2008 |page=94 |isbn= 978-1-57607-907-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&dq=harappan+civilization+oxford&pg=PA104}} Towards its end, the Harappan civilization lost features such as writing and hydraulic engineering.{{cite book|title= The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives |first= Jane |last= Mcintosh |publisher= Routledge |year=2008 |page=101 |isbn= 978-1-57607-907-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&dq=harappan+civilization+oxford&pg=PA104}} As a result, the Ganges Valley settlement gained prominence and Ganges' cities developed.

The earliest recognisably Harappan sites date to 3500 BC. This early phase lasts till around 2600 BC. The civilization's mature phase lasted from 2600 BC to 2000 BC. This is when the great cities were at their height. Then, from around 2000 BC, there was a steady disintegration that lasted till 1400 BC – what is usually called Late Harappan.{{Citation |title=Culture change during the Late Harappan period at Harappa: new insights on Vedic Aryan issues |date=2004-08-02 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203641880-7 |work=The Indo-Aryan Controversy |pages=33–61 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203641880-7 |isbn=978-0-203-64188-0 |access-date=2022-03-30|url-access=subscription }} There is no sign that the Harappan cities were laid waste by invaders. The evidence strongly points to natural causes. A number of studies show that the area which is today the Thar Desert was once far wetter and that the climate gradually became drier.{{Cite book |last=Q. |first=Madella, Marco Fuller, Dorian |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1103344632ndjabcxsabchbbcvdsscbuhdchnaeuc |title=Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilization of South Asia: a reconsideration |date=2006-01-18 |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=1103344632}}

The Indus Valley civilization was basically an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Elam and Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers."Library of Congress: Country Studies. 1995. [http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/indusvalleyciv/a/harappanculture.htm Harappan Culture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702145021/http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/indusvalleyciv/a/harappanculture.htm |date=2 July 2007 }}. Retrieved 13 January 2006. Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion.

The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilisation, on the other hand, were highly standardised, and conformed to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for the identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, was domesticated," as well as "fowl for fighting".{{cite book |last1=Schneller |first1=Thomas |title=Poultry: identification, fabrication, utilization |date=28 September 2009 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=9781435400382 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8xHK6ibUMYC&dq=Harappa+cock+fight&pg=PA16 |page=16}} Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralised administration for each city, though not the whole civilisation, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli.{{Cite book|title = Worlds Together, Worlds Apart|last = Pollard|first = Elizabeth|publisher = Norton|year = 2015|isbn = 978-0-393-92207-3|location = New York|page = 67}}

What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory.{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012 | pmid=29539378 | volume=2 | issue=2–3 | title=A peaceful realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa | year=2012 | journal=International Journal of Paleopathology | pages=136–147 | last1 = Robbins Schug | first1 = Gwen| s2cid=3933522 | url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/G_Robbins_Schug_Peaceful_2012.pdf }} Examinations of Harappan skeletons have often found wounds that are likely to have been inflicted in battle.{{Cite journal |last1=Robbins Schug |first1=Gwen |last2=Blevins |first2=K. Elaine |last3=Cox |first3=Brett |last4=Gray |first4=Kelsey |last5=Mushrif-Tripathy |first5=V. |date=2013-12-17 |title=Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilization |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=e84814 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0084814 |pmid=24358372 |pmc=3866234 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...884814R |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }} Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls).{{cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0084814 | volume=8 | issue=12 | title=Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilisation | year=2013 | journal=PLOS ONE | page=e84814 | last1 = Robbins Schug | first1 = Gwen| pmc=3866234 | pmid=24358372| bibcode=2013PLoSO...884814R | doi-access=free }} Furthermore, rates of craniofacial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilisation collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety.

The Harappans had traded with ancient Mesopotamia, especially Elam, among other areas. Cotton textiles and agricultural products were the primary trading objects. The Harappan merchants also had procurement colonies in Mesopotamia as well, which served as trading centres.{{cite book | first= Jane| last= Mcintosh | year=2008| title= The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives| pages=183–184, 394| publisher= ABC-CLIO| isbn= 978-1-57607-907-2 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC }} They also traded extensively with people living in southern India, near modern-day Karnataka, to procure gold and copper from them.https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/harappan-culturehttps://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/shipping-and-maritime-trade-of-the-indus-people/

{{see also|Harappan architecture}}

File:Harappan small figures.jpg.]]

The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation:

1. Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC
2. Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC
3. Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC
4. Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC
5. Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC

Period 1 occupation was thought to be around 7 to 10 hectares, but following excavations and findings of pottery in Mound E, along with previously found Mound AB pottery, suggest Ravi/Hakra phase would have been extended, together in both mounds, to 25 hectares.Kenoyer, J. M., (June 6, 2023). [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7uXKUInyVo "Indus Socio-Economic, Political and Ideological Organization"], in ARWA Association, min. 5:48 to 6:41, "Period 1 Ravi/Hakra Phase, area greater than 10 to 25+ hectares, possibly divided into two mounds, one to the north, Mound AB and the other to the southeast, Mound E."

Period 2, Kot Diji phase, was extended in the same two mounds, AB and E, covering over 27 hectares.Kenoyer, J. M., (June 6, 2023). [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7uXKUInyVo "Indus Socio-Economic, Political and Ideological Organization"], in ARWA Association, min. 8:04 to 9:30.

In Period 3, Harappa phase, the settlement reached 150 hectares.{{cite book|last=Fagan|first=Brian|title=People of the earth: an introduction to world prehistory|year=2003|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-13-111316-9|page=414}}

By far the most exquisite and obscure artefacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world and the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-Dravidian or other non-Vedic language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilisation iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area.

In February 2006, a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu, discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.{{cite news | last=Subramaniam | first=T. S. | title= "Discovery of a century" in Tamil Nadu | date=1 May 2006 | url =http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050112670100.htm | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20060615053236/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050112670100.htm | url-status =dead | archive-date =15 June 2006 | work=The Hindu | access-date = 21 May 2008}}{{cite news | last=Subramaniam | first=T. S. | title=Significance of Mayiladuthurai find | date=1 May 2006 | url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm | work=The Hindu | access-date=23 May 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430214654/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm | archive-date=30 April 2008 | url-status=usurped }} Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu". Based on this evidence, he went on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis.

The area of the late Harappan period consisted of the areas of the Daimabad, Maharashtra, and Badakshan regions of Afghanistan. The area covered by this civilisation would have been very large with a distance of around {{convert|1500|mi|order=flip}}.{{cite book|title= History of India |first= Herman |last= Kulke |publisher= Routledge |year=2004 |page=4 |isbn= 978-0-415-32920-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&q=india++history}}

Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon-dated 3300–3200 BC, contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings. "It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script", said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project.{{cite news|last=BBC|first=UK website|title=Earliest writing found|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/334517.stm|work=BBC News|access-date=17 July 2012}} These primitive symbols are placed slightly earlier than the primitive writing of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, dated c.3100 BC. These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script which has not been completely deciphered yet.

File:Red pottery, IVC.jpg.]]{{Unsourced|section|date=January 2025}}{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=230|caption_align=center

| align = right

| direction =horizontal

| header=Statuettes from Harappa

| image1 = Harappa red jasper male torso.jpg

| image2 = Harappa 13 grey stone male dancer statuette.jpg

| footer=The controversial Harappa male torso (left). The discoverer, Madho Sarup Vats, claimed a Harappan date, but Marshall dated the statuette to the Gupta period.The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective by Gregory L. Possehl [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA111 p.111] Another famous statuette from the site is the Harappa grey stone male dancer (right).

}}

• The earliest radiocarbon dating mentioned on the web is 2725±185 BC (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BC calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BC. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986–1990: A multidisciplinary approach to Second Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29–59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin.
• Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BC.
• Mohenjo-daro is another major city of the same period, located in Sindh province of Pakistan. One of its most well-known structures is the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro.

{{Portal|Pakistan}}

• Charles Masson – First European explorer of Harappa
• Harappa Museum
• Mehrgarh
• Ganeriwala
• Dholavira
• Lothal
• Mandi, Uttar Pradesh
• Sheri Khan Tarakai
• Sokhta Koh
• Kalibangan
• Rakhigarhi
• Taxila

{{Reflist|refs=

{{cite web|title=Archeological Site of Harappa|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1878/|work=World Heritage Centre|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=19 February 2013}}

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{{Refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |author-link=Irfan Habib |title=The Indus Civilization |year=2015 |publisher=Tulika Books |isbn=978-93-82381-53-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t4gUjwEACAAJ }}
• {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Rita P. |author-link=Rita P. Wright |title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ |access-date=29 September 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57219-4 }}

{{Refend}}

{{Commons category|Harappa}}

• [http://www.harappa.com/ Harappa.com]
• "[https://www.srikanta-sastri.org/harappa-town-planning Harappa Town Planning]"- article by Dr. S. Srikanta Sastri
• [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/33948 Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley], an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Harappa
• {{cite web |title=Harappa |url=https://doam.gov.pk/sites/6579 |publisher=Department of Archaeology and Museums – Government of Pakistan}}

{{World Heritage Sites in Pakistan}}

{{Indus Valley Civilisation}}

{{Neighbourhoods of Sahiwal}}

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