Hawaiian Islands

The Hawaiian Islands have a total land area of {{convert|6423.4|sqmi|km2|1}}. Except for Midway, which is an unincorporated territory of the United States, these islands and islets are administered as Hawaii—the 50th state of the United States.{{cite web|url=http://files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/census/geo/hi_gslcg.pdf|title=Guide to State and Local Census Geography – Hawaii|pages=1–2|location=Washington, DC|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|date=September 9, 2013|access-date=September 16, 2016|archive-date=October 6, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006175353/http://files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/census/geo/hi_gslcg.pdf|url-status=live}}

{{Anchor|Hawaiian Windward Islands}}

{{Main Hawaiian Islands}}

The eight major islands of Hawaii (Windward Islands) are listed above. All except Kaho'olawe are inhabited.

File:ISS-38 Hawaiian Island chain.jpg

File:2003-3d-hawaiian-islands-usgs-i2809.jpg ({{convert|4170|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}} high) and Mauna Kea ({{convert|4207.3|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}} high). The islands are the tops of massive volcanoes, the bulk of which lie below the sea surface. Ocean depths are colored from violet ({{convert|5750|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}} deep northeast of Maui) and indigo to light gray (shallowest). Historical lava flows are shown in red, erupting from the summits and rift zones of Mauna Loa, Kilauea, and Hualalai volcanoes on Hawaiʻi.]]

File:Diamond Head Hawaii - panoramio.jpg, Oʻahu ]]

The state of Hawaii counts 137 "islands" in the Hawaiian chain.{{Cite web|url=http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/economic/library/facts/Facts_and_Figures_State_and_Counties.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022150920/http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/economic/library/facts/Facts_and_Figures_State_and_Counties.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 22, 2008|title=Hawai'i Facts & Figures|work=state web site|publisher=State of Hawaii Dept. of Business, Economic Development & Tourism|date=December 2009|access-date=May 23, 2010}} This number includes all minor islands (small islands), islets (even smaller islands) offshore of the major islands (listed above), and individual islets in each atoll. These are just a few:

• Kaʻula
• Kāohikaipu
• Lehua
• Mānana
• Mōkōlea Rock
• Mokoli{{okina}}i
• Moku Manu
• Mokuauia
• Moku o Loʻe
• Moku Ola
• Mokuʻumeʻume
• Molokini
• Nā Mokulua

File:NASA Hawaiian Islands full quality.png of the Hawaiian Islands taken from outer space. Click on the image for a larger view that shows the main islands and the extended archipelago.]]

Partial islands, atolls, reefs—those west of Niʻihau are uninhabited except Midway Atoll—form the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Leeward Islands):

• Nihoa (Mokumana)
• Necker (Mokumanamana)
• French Frigate Shoals (Kānemilohaʻi)
• Gardner Pinnacles (Pūhāhonu)
• Maro Reef (Nalukākala)
• Laysan (Kauō)
• Lisianski Island (Papaʻāpoho)
• Pearl and Hermes Atoll (Holoikauaua)
• Midway Atoll (Pihemanu)
• Kure Atoll (Mokupāpapa)

{{Main|Hawaii hotspot}}

{{See also|List of Hawaii rivers}}

File:Hawaii hotspot.jpg left a trail of underwater mountains across the Pacific over millions of years, called the Emperor Seamounts.]]

This chain of islands, or archipelago, developed as the Pacific plate slowly moved northwestward over a hotspot in the Earth's mantle at a rate of approximately {{convert|32|mi|km|}} per million years. Thus, the southeast island is volcanically active, whereas the islands on the northwest end of the archipelago are older and typically smaller, due to longer exposure to erosion. The age of the archipelago has been estimated using potassium-argon dating methods.{{Cite web|title=Tectonics, geochronology, and origin of the Hawaiian-Emperor Volcanic Chain|url=http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/Faculty/Morden/BotZool450/Clague1989.pdf|work=The Geology of North America, Volume N: The Eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii|year=1989|access-date=January 17, 2011|publisher=The Geology Society of America|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611080721/http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/Faculty/Morden/BotZool450/Clague1989.pdf|archive-date=June 11, 2011}} From this study and others,{{Cite journal|title=Potassium-Argon Ages of Lavas from the Hawi and Pololu Volcanic Series, Kohala Volcano, Hawaii|url=http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/content/83/12/3731.abstract|publisher=Geology Society of American Bulletin|year=1972|volume=83|pages=3731–3738|access-date=January 17, 2011|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[3731:PAOLFT]2.0.CO;2|last1=McDougall|first1=IAN|last2=Swanson|first2=D. A.|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|issue=12|bibcode=1972GSAB...83.3731M|archive-date=May 24, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524010430/https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/83/12/3731/7435/Potassium-Argon-Ages-of-Lavas-from-the-Hawi-and?redirectedFrom=fulltext|url-status=live}}{{Cite journal|title=Petrography and K-Ar Ages of Dredged Volcanic Rocks from the Western Hawaiian Ridge and the Southern Emperor Seamount Chain|url=http://bulletin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/86/7/991|publisher=Geology Society of America Bulletin|year=1975|volume=86|pages=991–998|access-date=January 17, 2011|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<991:PAKAOD>2.0.CO;2|issue=7|issn=0016-7606|last1=Clague|first1=David A.|last2=Dalrymple|first2=G. Brent|last3=Moberly|first3=Ralph|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|bibcode=1975GSAB...86..991C|archive-date=November 11, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111123116/http://bulletin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/86/7/991|url-status=live}} it is estimated that the northwesternmost island, Kure Atoll, is the oldest at approximately 28 million years (Ma); while the southeasternmost island, Hawaiʻi, is approximately 0.4 Ma (400,000 years). The only active volcanism in the last 200 years has been on the southeastern island, Hawaiʻi, and on the submerged but growing volcano to the extreme southeast, Kamaʻehuakanaloa (formerly Loʻihi). The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory of the USGS documents recent volcanic activity and provides images and interpretations of the volcanism. Kīlauea had been erupting nearly continuously since 1983 when it stopped August 2018.

Almost all of the magma of the hotspot has the composition of basalt, and so the Hawaiian volcanoes are composed almost entirely of this igneous rock. There is very little coarser-grained gabbro and diabase. Nephelinite is exposed on the islands but is extremely rare. The majority of eruptions in Hawaiʻi are Hawaiian-type eruptions because basaltic magma is relatively fluid compared with magmas typically involved in more explosive eruptions, such as the andesitic magmas that produce some of the spectacular and dangerous eruptions around the margins of the Pacific basin.

Hawaiʻi island (the Big Island) is the biggest and youngest island in the chain, built from five volcanoes. Mauna Loa, taking up over half of the Big Island, is the largest shield volcano on the Earth. The measurement from sea level to summit is more than {{convert|2.5|mi|km|0}}, from sea level to sea floor about {{convert|3.1|mi|km|0}}.{{Cite web|title=Mauna Loa Earth's Largest Volcano|url=http://wwwhvo.wr.usgs.gov/maunaloa/|work=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory web site|publisher=United States Geological Survey|date=February 2006|access-date=December 9, 2009|archive-date=November 17, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117061824/http://wwwhvo.wr.usgs.gov/maunaloa/|url-status=dead}}

{{Main|List of earthquakes in Hawaii}}

The Hawaiian Islands have many earthquakes, generally triggered by and related to volcanic activity. Seismic activity, as a result, is currently highest in the southern part of the chain. Both historical and modern earthquake databases have correlated higher magnitude earthquakes with flanks of active volcanoes, such as Mauna Loa and Kilauea. The combination of erosional forces, which cause slumping and landslides, with the pressure exerted by rising magma put a great amount of stress on the volcanic flanks. The stress is released when the slope fails, or slips, causing an earthquake. This type of seismicity is unique because the forces driving the system are not always consistent over time, since rates of volcanic activity fluctuate. Seismic hazard near active, seaward volcanic flanks is high, partially because of the especially unpredictable nature of the forces that trigger earthquakes, and partially because these events occur at relatively shallow depths. Flank earthquakes typically occur at depths ranging from 5 to 20 km, increasing the hazard to local infrastructure and communities.{{Cite journal|last=crossref|title=Chooser|url=https://chooser.crossref.org/|access-date=January 17, 2024|website=chooser.crossref.org|doi=10.1785/0120000060|archive-date=August 26, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826192842/https://chooser.crossref.org/|url-status=dead}} Earthquakes and landslides on the island chain have also been known to cause tsunamis.

Most of the early earthquake monitoring took place in Hilo, by missionaries Titus Coan and Sarah J. Lyman and her family. Between 1833 and 1896, approximately 4 or 5 earthquakes were reported per year.{{Cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/hawaii/history.php|title=Hawaii Earthquake History|access-date=December 9, 2009|publisher=United States Geological Survey|year=1972|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419112209/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/hawaii/history.php|archive-date=April 19, 2009}} Today, earthquakes are monitored by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory run by the USGS.

Hawaii accounted for 7.3% of the United States' reported earthquakes with a magnitude 3.5 or greater from 1974 to 2003, with a total 1533 earthquakes. Hawaii ranked as the state with the third most earthquakes over this time period, after Alaska and California.{{Cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/top_states.php|title=Top Earthquake States|access-date=December 9, 2009|publisher=United States Geological Survey|year=2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831032740/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/top_states.php|archive-date=August 31, 2009|url-status=dead}}

On October 15, 2006, there was an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 off the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii, near the Kona area. The initial earthquake was followed approximately five minutes later by a magnitude 5.7 aftershock. Minor to moderate damage was reported on most of the Big Island. Several major roadways became impassable from rock slides, and effects were felt as far away as Honolulu, Oahu, nearly {{convert|150|mi|km}} from the epicenter. Power outages lasted for several hours to days. Several water mains ruptured. No deaths or life-threatening injuries were reported.

On May 4, 2018, there was a 6.9 earthquake in the zone of volcanic activity from Kīlauea.

Earthquakes are monitored by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory run by the USGS.

File:1960-Chilean-tsunami-Hilo-HI-USGS.jpg in Hilo, Hawaiʻi, where the tsunami left 61 people dead and 282 seriously injured. The waves reached {{convert|35|ft|m|0}} high.]]

The Hawaiian Islands are subject to tsunamis, great waves that strike the shore. Tsunamis are most often caused by earthquakes somewhere in the Pacific. The waves produced by the earthquakes travel at speeds of {{convert|400|–|500|mph|km/h|-2}} and can affect coastal regions thousands of miles (kilometers) away.

Tsunamis may also originate from the Hawaiian Islands. Explosive volcanic activity can cause tsunamis. The island of Molokaʻi had a catastrophic collapse or debris avalanche over a million years ago; this underwater landslide likely caused tsunamis. The Hilina Slump on the island of Hawaiʻi is another potential place for a large landslide and resulting tsunami.

The city of Hilo on the Big Island has been most affected by tsunamis, where the in-rushing water is accentuated by the shape of Hilo Bay. Coastal cities have tsunami warning sirens.

A tsunami resulting from an earthquake in Chile hit the islands on February 27, 2010. It was relatively minor, but local emergency management officials utilized the latest technology and ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The Governor declared it a "good drill" for the next major event.

A tsunami resulting from an earthquake in Japan hit the islands on March 11, 2011. It was relatively minor, but local officials ordered evacuations in preparation for a possible major event. The tsunami caused about $30.1 million in damages.{{Cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1229/of2012-1229_text.pdf|title=Tohoku-Oki Earthquake Tsunami Runup and Inundation Data for Sites Around the Island of Hawai'i|first1=Frank A.|last1=Trusdell|first2=Amy|last2=Chadderton|first3=Graham|last3=Hinchliffe|first4=Andrew|last4=Hara|first5=Brent|last5=Patenge|first6=Tom|last6=Weber|publisher=United States Geological Survey|date=November 15, 2012|access-date=October 11, 2016|pages=3–4|archive-date=February 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208194543/https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1229/of2012-1229_text.pdf|url-status=live}}

{{Main|List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain}}

File:Lava From Kilauea Volcano.webp

Only the two Hawaiian islands furthest to the southeast have active volcanoes: Haleakalā on Maui, and Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, Kilauea, and Hualalai, all on the Big Island. The volcanoes on the remaining islands are extinct as they are no longer over the Hawaii hotspot. The Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount is an active submarine volcano that is expected to become the newest Hawaiian island when it rises above the ocean's surface in 10,000–100,000 years.{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii|title=Active Volcanoes of Hawaii | U.S. Geological Survey|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=June 9, 2023|archive-date=June 8, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608153922/https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/active-volcanoes-hawaii|url-status=live}}

Hazards from these volcanoes include lava flows that can destroy and bury the surrounding surface, volcanic gas emissions, earthquakes and tsunamis listed above, submarine eruptions affecting the ocean, and the possibility of an explosive eruption.{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/hazards|title=Hazards | U.S. Geological Survey|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=June 9, 2023|archive-date=June 9, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609072759/https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/hazards|url-status=live}}

File:Death of Captain Cook by John Cleveley the Younger, Aquatint Francis Jukes HMA I259817 TePapa.jpg, at Kealakekua Bay on February 14, 1779]]

{{Main article|History of Hawaii}}

Hawaii was first discovered and settled by explorers from Tahiti or the Marquesas Islands. The date of the first settlements is a continuing debate.{{cite book | first1=Charles E.M. | last1=Pearce | first2=F. M. | last2=Pearce | title=Oceanic Migration: Paths, Sequence, Timing and Range of Prehistoric Migration in the Pacific and Indian Oceans | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhQxc4GW8soC&pg=PA167 | date=June 17, 2010 | publisher=Springer Science & Business Media | isbn=978-90-481-3826-5 | page=167 | access-date=March 27, 2017 | archive-date=February 26, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226050826/https://books.google.com/books?id=rhQxc4GW8soC&pg=PA167#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }} Kirch's textbooks on Hawaiian archeology date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300 C.E., although his more recent estimates are as late as 600. More recent surveys of carbon-dating evidence put the arrival of the first settlers at around 940–1130 C.E.{{cite journal |last1=Athens |first1=J. S. |title=A paleoenvironment and archeological model-based age estimate for the colonization of Hawai'i. |journal=American Antiquity |date=2014 |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=144–155|doi=10.7183/0002-7316.79.1.144 |s2cid=163179921 }}

{{Transclude lead excerpt | History of Hawaii| paragraphs= 2–5 |more=no}}

{{See also|Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands|List of animal species introduced to the Hawaiian Islands|List of invasive plant species in Hawaii}}

The islands are home to a multitude of endemic species. Since human settlement, first by Polynesians, non native trees, plants, and animals were introduced. These included species such as rats and pigs, that have preyed on native birds and invertebrates that initially evolved in the absence of such predators. The growing population of humans, especially through European and American colonization and development, has also led to deforestation, forest degradation, treeless grasslands, and environmental degradation.{{cite thesis|last=Shih|first=Ashanti Ke Ming|title=Invasive Ecologies: Science and Settler Colonialism in Twentieth-Century Hawai'i|degree=PhD|date=December 2019|via=ProQuest|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/bd612ff460936a2025f6fe8f5b09b020/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y|access-date=May 8, 2024}} As a result, many species which depended on forest habitats and food became extinct—with many current species facing extinction. As humans cleared land for farming with the importation of industrialized farming practices through European and American encroachment, monocultural crop production replaced multi-species systems.

File:Molokai Creeper.jpg

The arrival of the Europeans had a more significant impact, with the promotion of large-scale single-species export agriculture and livestock grazing. This led to increased clearing of forests, and the development of towns, adding many more species to the list of extinct animals of the Hawaiian Islands. {{As of|2009}}, many of the remaining endemic species are considered endangered.{{Cite book|title=Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands|editor=Craig R. Elevitch|editor2=Kim M. Wilkinson|url=http://www.agroforestry.net/afg/|isbn=0-9702544-0-7|publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources|year=2000|access-date=September 26, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060112211047/http://www.agroforestry.net/afg/|archive-date=January 12, 2006|url-status=dead}}

On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush issued a public proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906. The Monument encompasses the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and surrounding waters, forming the largest{{cite magazine|last1=Barnett|first1=Cynthia|title=Hawaii Is Now Home to an Ocean Reserve Twice the Size of Texas|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/obama-creates-world-s-largest-park-off-hawaii/?sf34386404=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116042747/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/obama-creates-world-s-largest-park-off-hawaii/?sf34386404=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 16, 2018|access-date=September 2, 2016|magazine=National Geographic|date=August 26, 2016}} marine wildlife reserve in the world. In August 2010, UNESCO's World Heritage Committee added Papahānaumokuākea to its list of World Heritage Sites.{{Cite news|url=https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/21_sites_added_to_Unesco_World_Heritage_list|title=21 sites added to Unesco World Heritage list – Wikinews, the free news source|newspaper=Wikinews|date=August 5, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329045919/https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/21_sites_added_to_Unesco_World_Heritage_list|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|url=https://intransit.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/08/04/unesco-adds-21-sites-to-world-heritage-list|title=Unesco Adds 21 Sites to World Heritage List|last=Saltzstein|first=Dan|date=August 4, 2010|work=The New York Times|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=October 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001033243/https://intransit.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/08/04/unesco-adds-21-sites-to-world-heritage-list/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/647|title=World Heritage Committee inscribes a total of 21 new sites on UNESCO World Heritage List|date=August 2, 2010|website=whc.unesco.org|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=December 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201123432/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/647/|url-status=live}} On August 26, 2016, former President Barack Obama greatly expanded Papahānaumokuākea, quadrupling it from its original size.{{Cite web|url=http://www.staradvertiser.com/2016/08/25/breaking-news/ige-tells-obama-he-supports-expansion-of-papahanaumokuakea/|title=Obama expands Papahanaumokuakea marine reserve; plans Oahu trip|last=Cocke|first=Sophie|date=August 25, 2016|website=Honolulu Star Advertiser|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329051523/http://www.staradvertiser.com/2016/08/25/breaking-news/ige-tells-obama-he-supports-expansion-of-papahanaumokuakea/|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/08/26/fact-sheet-president-obama-create-worlds-largest-marine-protected-area|title=Fact Sheet: President Obama to Create the World's Largest Marine Protected Area|date=August 26, 2016|work=whitehouse.gov|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=January 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120220151/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/08/26/fact-sheet-president-obama-create-worlds-largest-marine-protected-area|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/obama-creates-world-s-largest-park-off-hawaii/|title=Hawaii Is Now Home to an Ocean Reserve Twice the Size of Texas|last=Barnett|first=Cynthia|date=August 26, 2016|work=NationalGeographic.com|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=August 29, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829145038/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/obama-creates-world-s-largest-park-off-hawaii/|url-status=dead}}

{{Main|Climate of Hawaii}}

File:Lanikai beach culture.JPG]]

The Hawaiian Islands are tropical but experience many different climates, depending on altitude and surroundings.{{cite book|pages=39, 43, 49, 53|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJjf0Oh2EBIC&pg=PA49|title=Hydrology of the Hawaiian Islands|isbn=9780824829483|last1=Lau|first1=Leung-Ku Stephen|last2=Mink|first2=John Francis|date=October 1, 2006|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|access-date=November 22, 2015|archive-date=January 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118063804/https://books.google.com/books?id=BJjf0Oh2EBIC&pg=PA49|url-status=live}} The islands receive most rainfall from the trade winds on their north and east flanks (the windward side) as a result of orographic precipitation. Coastal areas in general and especially the south and west flanks, or leeward sides, tend to be drier.

In general, the lowlands of Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). Drier conditions generally prevail from May to September. The tropical storms, and occasional hurricanes, tend to occur from July through November.

During the summer months the average temperature is about 84 °F (29 °C), in the winter months it is approximately 79 °F (26 °C). As the temperature is relatively constant over the year the probability of dangerous thunderstorms is approximately low.{{Cite web|title=So ist das Wetter auf Hawaii|url=https://www.hawaiiurlaub.de/hawaii-wetter-klima/|access-date=June 24, 2020|website=Hawaiiurlaub.de|date=July 24, 2015|language=de-DE|archive-date=August 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807115838/https://www.hawaiiurlaub.de/hawaii-wetter-klima/|url-status=live}}

{{portal|Geography|Oceania||United States|Hawaii|Mountains|Volcanoes}}

• Hawaii Inter-Island Cable System
• Index of Hawaii-related articles
• List of birds of Hawaii
• List of fish of Hawaii
• List of mountain peaks of Hawaii
• List of Ultras of Hawaii
• Maritime fur trade
• Outline of Hawaii

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

• {{Cite book|last=Morgan|first=Joseph R.|chapter=Volcanic Landforms|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/hawaiiuniquegeog0000morg/page/8/mode/2up|chapter-url-access=registration|title=Hawai'i: A Unique Geography|url=https://archive.org/details/hawaiiuniquegeog0000morg|url-access=registration|publisher=Bess Press|year=1996|location=Honolulu, HI|isbn=9781573060219|oclc=693187693|via=Internet Archive|ref=none}}
• {{cite EB9 |wstitle = The Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands |volume= XI |last= Johnson |first= James Yate |author-link= James Yate Johnson| page=528-532 |short=1}}
• [http://apdrc.soest.hawaii.edu/Hawaii An integrated information website focused on the Hawaiian Archipelago] from the [http://apdrc.soest.hawaii.edu/PRIDE/ Pacific Region Integrated Data Enterprise (PRIDE)].
• {{cite book|last1=Macdonald|first1=Gordon A.|author1-link=Gordon A. Macdonald|last2=Abbott|first2=Agatin|title=Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|publication-place=Honolulu|year=2021|orig-year=1970|isbn=9780824885786|oclc=1253313940|doi=10.1515/9780824885786|ref=none}}
• 1970 edition: {{Internet Archive |id=volcanoesinseage00macd |name=Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii}} {{registration required|nolink=y}}
• [http://radlab.soest.hawaii.edu/atlas/ The Ocean Atlas of Hawai‘i] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407053417/http://radlab.soest.hawaii.edu/atlas/ |date=April 7, 2022 }} – SOEST at University of Hawai{{okina}}i.
• {{cite web|url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/education/hawaii/intro/intro.html|title=Hawaiian Volcanoes – Introduction – Department of Geosciences|location=Corvallis, OR, US|access-date=May 12, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305015414/http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/education/hawaii/intro/intro.html|archive-date=March 5, 2012}} [http://volcano.oregonstate.edu Volcano World {{!}}; Your World is Erupting] – Oregon State University College of Science

{{Hawaii}}

{{Polynesia}}

{{U.S. political divisions geographies}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean

Category:Archipelagoes of Oceania

Category:Archipelagoes of the United States

Category:Geography of Polynesia

Islands

Category:Hudson's Bay Company trading posts

Category:Physical oceanography

Category:Eastern Indo-Pacific

Category:Marine ecoregions