Height discrimination

The term heightism was coined by sociologist Saul Feldman in a paper titled "The presentation of shortness in everyday life—height and heightism in American society: Toward a sociology of stature", presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association in 1971.Feldman, Saul. "The presentation of shortness in everyday life—height and heightism in American society: Toward a sociology of stature

Paper". Presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association. Chicago, Il. 1971.heightism, n." OED Online. June 2003. Oxford University Press. September 2006. Heightism was included in the Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1971){{cite journal

| last = Shapiro

| first = Fred R.

| author-link = Fred R. Shapiro

| date =Spring 1985

| title = Historical Notes on the Vocabulary of the Women's Movement

| journal = American Speech

| volume = 60

| issue = 1

| pages = 3–16

| jstor = 454643

| doi = 10.2307/454643

}} and had a further degree of popularization by Time magazine in a 1971 article on Feldman's paper.{{cite magazine

|date=4 October 1971

|title= Heightism.(Behavior)

|magazine= Time

|volume= 98

|issue= 14

|pages= 82

}}

The term heightism can also be seen as an example of the increase in popular usage of phrases, particularly those relating to prejudice and discrimination, patterned after that of the word sexism. Height discrimination can also come in the form of pejorative slang terms.{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Arianne |title=The Tall Book: A Celebration of Life from on High |date=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-60819-110-9 }}{{page needed|date=December 2024}}

A 2004 study published in the Journal of Applied Psychology showed that height is strongly related to success for men. It showed that increase in height for men corresponds to increase in income after controlling for other social psychological variables like age and weight. That same year, a study published in the Journal of Political Economy conjectured a "height premium" and found that "a 1.8-percent increase in wages accompanies every additional inch [{{convert|1|in|cm|disp=out|4=2}}] of height". They also found that men's wages as adults could be linked to their height at age 16. The researchers found that on an average an increase in height by {{convert|1|in|cm|4=2|spell=in}} at age 16 increased male adult wages by 2.6 percent. This is equal to an increase of approximately $850 in 1996 annual earnings (or ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|850|1996|r=-1}}}} today).{{Inflation-fn|US}} In other words, the height and corresponding social experiences of a taller male adolescent at age 16 would likely translate to higher wages in later adulthood as compared to a shorter male adolescent.

Recent findings suggest that height discrimination occurs most often against racial minorities. A 2007 study published in the Journal of Vocational Behavior found that African-Americans reported higher weight and height related discrimination. This discrimination was even higher in female employees.{{Cite journal|last1=Roehling|first1=Mark V.|last2=Roehling|first2=Patricia V.|last3=Pichler|first3=Shaun|date=1 October 2007|title=The relationship between body weight and perceived weight-related employment discrimination: The role of sex and race|journal=Journal of Vocational Behavior |volume=71|issue=2|pages=300–318|doi=10.1016/j.jvb.2007.04.008}}

In 2017, attorney and author Tanya Osensky published Shortchanged: Height Discrimination and Strategies for Social Change.{{cite book |last1=Osensky |first1=Tanya S. |title=Shortchanged: Height Discrimination and Strategies for Social Change |date=2017 |publisher=Brandeis University Press |isbn=978-1-5126-0143-5 }}{{page needed|date=December 2024}} The book examines the cultural, medical, and occupational issues that short people face, which are often deemed unimportant and disregarded. Osensky challenges heightism by disclosing some beneficial aspects of shortness and suggesting avenues of activism and change.

Some jobs require a minimum height. For example, US Military pilots have to be {{convert|160|to|200|cm|in}} tall with a sitting height of {{convert|86|to|102|cm|in}}.{{cite web|url=http://www.afrotc.com/admissions/medicalReq.php|title=U.S. Air Force ROTC despite statistical and physical evidence to support the proposition that short people consistently have reduced reaction times.: Admissions requirements|website=afrotc.com|access-date=22 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008211834/http://www.afrotc.com/admissions/medicalReq.php|archive-date=8 October 2006}} Other jobs require a maximum height or to be between a certain height range, such as flight attendant.{{Cite web|title=Weight & Height Restrictions for Flight Attendants|url=https://work.chron.com/weight-height-restrictions-flight-attendants-27593.html|access-date=2022-02-15|website=Work - Chron.com|date=2 December 2013 |language=en-US}} These exceptions noted, in the great majority of cases a person's height would not seem to have an effect on how well they are able to perform their job. Nevertheless, studies have shown that short people are paid less than taller people, with disparities similar in magnitude to the race and gender gaps.{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/Careers/02/02/cb.tall.people/index.html|title=Why tall people make more money|first=Meg|last=Donohue|work=CNN|access-date=22 October 2017}}

Surveys have uncovered that less than 3% of CEOs were below {{cvt|1.70|m|ftin}} in height, and 90% of CEOs are of above average height.{{cite news |id={{ProQuest|224124138}} |title=Short guys finish last |newspaper=The Economist |volume=337 |issue=7946 |date=23 December 1995 |pages=19–22 }}

Initial studies indicated that taller men are more likely to be married and to have more children, except in societies with severe sex imbalances caused by war.[http://jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu/Research/HumanNatureProgArticles/dontwantnoshortshortmanFI.html Miami University of Ohio: "Don't Want No Short, Short Man: The Study Of Height, Power, and Mate Selection"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150126190008/http://jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu/Research/HumanNatureProgArticles/dontwantnoshortshortmanFI.html |date=2015-01-26 }}.{{self-published inline|date=December 2024}}{{full citation needed|date=December 2024}} However, more recent research has drawn this theory into question, finding no correlation between height and offspring count, although the sample was 200 and consisted only of delinquent youth.{{cite journal |last1=Genovese |first1=Jeremy E. C. |title=Physique Correlates with Reproductive Success in an Archival Sample of Delinquent Youth |journal=Evolutionary Psychology |date=July 2008 |volume=6 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/147470490800600301 |doi-access=free }} Moreover, research on leg length and leg-to-body ratio conflicts with the notion that there is a distinct preference for taller mates. A 2008 study found that both extremes, tall and short, reduced attractiveness, and a 2006 study found that a higher leg-to-body ratio in both genders increased aesthetic appeal.{{cite journal |last1=Sorokowski |first1=Piotr |last2=Pawlowski |first2=Boguslaw |title=Adaptive preferences for leg length in a potential partner |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |date=March 2008 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=86–91 |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.09.002 |bibcode=2008EHumB..29...86S }}{{cite journal |last1=Swami |first1=Viren |last2=Einon |first2=Dorothy |last3=Furnham |first3=Adrian |title=The leg-to-body ratio as a human aesthetic criterion |journal=Body Image |date=December 2006 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=317–323 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.08.003 |pmid=18089235 }} Conversely, research by Dan Ariely found that American women exhibit a marked preference for dating taller men, and that for shorter men to be judged attractive by women, they must earn substantially more money than taller men."Ariely found that a 5'4" [{{cvt|5|ft|4|in|m|disp=out}}] man would need to make $229,000 more than a 6' [{{cvt|6|ft|m|disp=out|4=2}}] man to have equal appeal; a 5'6" [{{cvt|5|ft|6|in|m|disp=out}}] man would need $183,000 more; a 5'10" [{{cvt|5|ft|10|in|m|disp=out}}] man would need $32,000 more." Lori Gottlieb (2010). Marry Him: The Case for Settling for Mr. Good Enough. Penguin, {{ISBN|9781101185209}} p. 239 Also, the perceived attractiveness of taller men may also apply to men of average height. A study showed that there isn't a notable difference between the perceived attractiveness of taller men and average height men when compared to each other. Rather, it's that shorter men are more unfavorably viewed and the increased preference for the other two groups are a possible side effect.{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=Linda |last2=Ervin |first2=Kelly |title=Height Stereotypes of Women and Men: The Liabilities of Shortness for Both Sexes |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |date=August 1992 |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=433–445 |doi=10.1080/00224545.1992.9924723 }}

A 2012 study of Indonesian men and women found that both men and women are willing to excuse height differences by using a trade-off approach. Men may compensate 1.3 BMI units with a 1 percent higher wage than their wife. Women may compensate 2 BMI units with an additional year of higher education.{{Cite journal|last=Sohn|first=Kitae|date=1 July 2015|title=The value of male height in the marriage market|journal=Economics and Human Biology |volume=18|pages=110–124|doi=10.1016/j.ehb.2015.05.004|pmid=26051039}} Furthermore, a 2015 study found that both men and women receive economic benefits from having a tall spouse.

Nonetheless, on a cultural level in post-industrial society, a sociological relationship between height and perceived attractiveness exists. For instance, in a 2019 survey performed by Ipsos in Hungary with over 500 respondents, the perfect height for men for 53% of participants was between {{cvt|1.78|m|ftin}} to {{cvt|1.85|m|ftin}}, while regarding female ideal height, 60% of respondents stated that it should be between {{cvt|1.65|m|ftin}} and {{cvt|1.75|m|ftin}}, indicating a predominant preference for average to moderately tall height in both sexes.{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1062775/public-perception-of-ideal-height-for-men-and-women-hungary/#statisticContainer|title=Height considered ideal for men/women in Hungary 2019 |author = Clark, Daniel| year = 2019|website=statista.com}} A study produced by the Universities of Groningen and Valencia, found that the taller a man was, the less anxious he felt about attractive, physically dominant, and socially powerful rivals.{{cite news |last1=Cressey |first1=Daniel |title=Short men are the jealous type |url=https://blogs.nature.com/news/2008/03/short_men_are_the_jealous_type.html |work=Nature News Blog |date=13 March 2008 }} This cultural characteristic of conferring relevance to height as an indicator of attractiveness, while applicable to the modernized world, is not a transcendental human quality.{{cite journal |last1=Sear |first1=Rebecca |last2=Marlowe |first2=Frank W. |title=How universal are human mate choices? Size does not matter when Hadza foragers are choosing a mate |journal=Biology Letters |date=23 October 2009 |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=606–609 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0342 |pmc=2781963 |pmid=19570778}}

In 1987 the BBC comedy series A Small Problem imagined a totalitarian society in which people under the height of {{convert|5|ft}} were systematically discriminated against. The program attracted considerable criticism and complaints which accused the writers of reinforcing prejudice and of using offensive terms; the writers responded that their intention had been to show all prejudice was stupid and that height was chosen randomly.[https://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/s/smallproblema_1299002875.shtml A Small Problem] in BBC Comedy Guide.

S&M Short and Male, a documentary aired in 2008, demonstrated the obstacles and bigotry that short statured men face every day in life, love and work.{{cite web|url=http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/Reviews/S/S_M_Short_And_Male/2008/05/16/5585311-sun.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624220912/http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/Reviews/S/S_M_Short_And_Male/2008/05/16/5585311-sun.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=June 24, 2013 |title=CANOE - JAM! S&M: Short And Male: Short guys film rises to challenge |publisher=Jam.canoe.ca |date=16 May 2008 |access-date=20 August 2013}}{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/MensHealthNews/story?id=8347950 |title=Short People Face Discrimination, Teasing and Lower Salaries |publisher=ABC News |date=18 August 2009 |access-date=20 August 2013}}{{cite web|url=http://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=abfc3842-dab7-4220-afab-6f9a1f3b0e04 |title=In short, stature's no joke, filmmaker argues |publisher=Canada.com |date=11 May 2008 |access-date=20 August 2013}}

The 2019 teen romantic comedy Tall Girl tells the story of a 16-year-old girl who struggles in high school due to her height.

Currently, there is one state in the United States of America, Michigan, that prohibits height discrimination.[http://www.michigan.gov/documents/act_453_elliott_larsen_8772_7.pdf Text] of the Elliot Larsen Civil Rights Act of 1976. Three American cities currently prohibit height discrimination: Santa Cruz, California,[http://www.genderadvocates.org/policy/Ordinances/Laws/Santa%20Cruz%20Ordinance.htm Chapter 9.83] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061105201654/http://www.genderadvocates.org/policy/Ordinances/Laws/Santa%20Cruz%20Ordinance.htm |date=5 November 2006 }} of the City of Santa Cruz code – "Prohibition against Discrimination", 1992. San Francisco, California,[http://www.naafa.org/fatf/sf_height_weight.html Text] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114214707/http://www.naafa.org/fatf/sf_height_weight.html |date=14 November 2006 }} of Compliance Guidelines To Prohibit Weight and Height Discrimination; San Francisco Administrative Code Chapters 12A, 12B and 12C and San Francisco Municipal/Police Code Article 33, 26 July 2001. and New York City; New York City prohibits it in employment, housing, and public accommodations.{{Cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/364-23/mayor-adams-signs-legislation-prohibit-height-weight-discrimination-employment-housing-|title=Mayor Adams Signs Legislation To Prohibit Height Or Weight Discrimination In Employment, Housing, An|date=May 26, 2023|website=The official website of the City of New York}} The District of Columbia prohibits discrimination based on personal appearance.[http://ohr.dc.gov/ohr/cwp/view,a,3,q,491858,ohrNav,%7C30953%7C.asp Text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206202758/http://ohr.dc.gov/ohr/cwp/view%2Ca%2C3%2Cq%2C491858%2CohrNav%2C%7C30953%7C.asp |date=6 December 2006 }} District of Columbia Human Rights Act. Ontario, Canada, prohibits height discrimination under the human rights code.[http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/resources/Policies/PolicyHtWt/view Policy on height and weight requirements] Ontario, Canada Human Rights Code. Victoria, Australia, prohibits discrimination based on physical features, including height, under the Equal Opportunity Act of 2010.{{Cite web |date=June 2022 |title=Equal Opportunity Act 2010 Quick Guide |url=https://www.humanrights.vic.gov.au/static/05d17cd2dab7e353b4d71d22a0aacc60/Resource-EOA_Quick_Guide-June_2022.pdf |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=Victoria Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission |page=6}}

Examples of successful legal battles pursued against height discrimination in the workplace include a 2002 case involving highly qualified applicants being turned down for jobs at a bank because they were considered too short;{{Cite web |date=2004-06-09 |title=Chinese height discrimination case |url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/05/31/dorf.height.discrimination/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040608141323/http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/05/31/dorf.height.discrimination/index.html |archive-date=2004-06-08 |access-date= |website=CNN}} a 2005 Swedish case involving an unfair height requirement for employment implemented by Volvo;{{Cite web |last=Berg |first=Annika |date=2005-09-21 |title=Volvo's demand for a specific height for female work applicant is discrimination, the Swedish Labour Court rules |url=http://www.eiro.eurofound.eu.int/2005/11/inbrief/se0511102n.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918124449/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/2005/11/inbrief/se0511102n.htm |archive-date=2012-09-18 |website=European Industrial Relations Observatory on-line |language=en |access-date=2006-12-06 }} and a 1999 case involving a Kohler Company informal practice not to consider women who applied for jobs unless they were at least {{convert|5|ft|4|in|abbr=on}} tall.[http://www.dol.gov/opa/media/press/esa/archive/esa99268.htm Kohler Corp. Gender Discrimination Case] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829144611/https://www.dol.gov/opa/media/press/esa/archive/esa99268.htm |date=29 August 2017 }}. Height requirements for employment which are not a bona fide occupational requirement are becoming less common.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} In 2022, the Supreme Court of Spain ruled that height requirements for joining the National Police Corps must take into account the average height for each sex in the Spanish population, disallowing a previous height rule for women.{{Cite web |title=Top Spanish court nixes height rule for women joining police |url=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2022/07/18/top-spanish-court-nixes-height-rule-for-women-joining-police/ |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=CityNews Toronto|date=18 July 2022 }}

{{one source|section|date=September 2022}}

Height is related to body image and does have an effect on the cognitive process. A study done involving spatial attention showed that people who were unhappy with their height were prone to looking quicker to short-associated words and tried to avoid attention to tall connected words because they could illicit negative feelings. Which could be caused when the participants with a dismal body image are exposed to their desired height, it creates an internal conflict, that they would like to lessen by facing away. This would potentially confirm agitation in individuals who are not satisfied with their height.{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Tingji |last2=Li |first2=Yishuang |last3=Feng |first3=Chengzhi |last4=Feng |first4=Wenfeng |title=Spatial attentional biases toward height-related words in young males with physical stature dissatisfaction |journal=Psychophysiology |date=February 2023 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=e14163 |doi=10.1111/psyp.14163 |pmid=35965305 }}

A research report published in the American Journal of Psychiatry found a strong inverse association between height and suicide in Swedish men. In other words, the suicide rate was higher for shorter men. This may signify the importance of childhood exposure in the etiology of adult mental disorder or reflect stigmatization or discrimination encountered by short men in their adult lives. A record linkage study of the birth, conscription, mortality, family, and census register data of 1,299,177 Swedish men followed from age 18 to a maximum of age 49 was performed and it was found that a {{cvt|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} increase in height was associated with a 9% decrease in suicide risk.{{Cite journal |last1=Magnusson |first1=Patrik K.E. |last2=Gunnell |first2=David |last3=Tynelius |first3=Per |last4=Davey Smith |first4=George |last5=Rasmussen |first5=Finn |date=2005 |title=Strong Inverse Association Between Height and Suicide in a Large Cohort of Swedish Men: Evidence of Early Life Origins of Suicidal Behavior? |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=162 |issue=7 |pages=1373–1375 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1373 |pmid=15994722 }}

Another study involving was conducted involving suicide and height for men, specifically relating to suicide attempts. It looked into hospital admissions of Swedish men and found that the risk of suicide declined when height increased. There were strong correlations between social class and height in the participants, particularly shorter men of lower status had a higher suicide probability. Also those of low socioeconomic standing could be more susceptible to health problems that cause shortness, and were more vulnerable to psychiatric illnesses.{{cite journal |last1=Whitley |first1=Elise |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Finn |last3=Tynelius |first3=Per |last4=Batty |first4=G. David |title=Physical stature and method-specific attempted suicide: Cohort study of one million men |journal=Psychiatry Research |date=August 2010 |volume=179 |issue=1 |pages=116–118 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2010.06.011 |pmid=20627206 |pmc=4170761 }}

For other forms of discrimination there is without a doubt some form of psychological harm on the individual. However, for height discrimination, it can be disputable. Research has shown that heightism has arguably little effect on any aspects of someone's quality of life, including mental state. Only individuals on the high end range of short and tall have experienced some moderate impact on physical performance.{{cite journal |last1=Coste |first1=Joël |last2=Pouchot |first2=Jacques |last3=Carel |first3=Jean-Claude |title=Height and Health-Related Quality of Life: A Nationwide Population Study |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |date=September 2012 |volume=97 |issue=9 |pages=3231–3239 |doi=10.1210/jc.2012-1543 |pmid=22745240 }} Furthermore, majority of the potential negative mental health effects individuals could have came from internally, height discontentment, and it was relatively small compared to overall livelihood. While there is an increase in negative treatment towards individuals in the height area of less than {{cvt|175|cm|ftin}}, it was mild in totality and only a small percentage of the overall study group reported it. The correlation between heightism and the well-being of someone was found to be small.{{cite journal |last1=Griffiths |first1=Scott |last2=Murray |first2=Stuart B. |last3=Medeiros |first3=Aimee |last4=Blashill |first4=Aaron J. |title=The tall and the short of it: An investigation of height ideals, height preferences, height dissatisfaction, heightism, and height-related quality of life impairment among sexual minority men |journal=Body Image |date=December 2017 |volume=23 |pages=146–154 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.001 |pmid=29031097 }}

{{Reflist}}

{{Discrimination}}

Category:Discrimination by type

Discrimination