Hexokinase III

Hexokinase III, also known as hexokinase C, is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the Hk3 gene on chromosome 5.{{cite journal | vauthors = Furuta H, Nishi S, Le Beau MM, Fernald AA, Yano H, Bell GI | title = Sequence of human hexokinase III cDNA and assignment of the human hexokinase III gene (hexokinase III) to chromosome band 5q35.2 by fluorescence in situ hybridization | journal = Genomics | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 206–9 | date = August 1996 | pmid = 8812439 | doi = 10.1006/geno.1996.0448 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Colosimo A, Calabrese G, Gennarelli M, Ruzzo AM, Sangiuolo F, Magnani M, Palka G, Novelli G, Dallapiccola B | title = Assignment of the Hk3 gene (hexokinase III) to human chromosome band 5q35.3 by somatic cell hybrids and in situ hybridization | journal = Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 187–8 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8941369 | doi = 10.1159/000134409 }} Hexokinases phosphorylate glucose to produce glucose-6-phosphate, the first step in most glucose metabolism pathways. Similar to hexokinases I and II, this allosteric enzyme is inhibited by its product glucose-6-phosphate. [provided by RefSeq, Apr 2009]{{cite web | title = Entrez Gene: hexokinase III hexokinase 3 (white cell) | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/3101 }}

Structure

Hexokinase III is one of four homologous hexokinase isoforms in mammalian cells.{{cite journal |vauthors=Murakami K, Kanno H, Tancabelic J, Fujii H |title=Gene expression and biological significance of hexokinase in erythroid cells |journal=Acta Haematologica |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=204–9 |date=2002 |pmid=12432216 |doi=10.1159/000065656|s2cid=23521290 }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Okatsu K, Iemura S, Koyano F, Go E, Kimura M, Natsume T, Tanaka K, Matsuda N |title=Mitochondrial hexokinase HKI is a novel substrate of the Parkin ubiquitin ligase |journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=197–202 |date=November 2012 |pmid=23068103 |doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.10.041 }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Wyatt E, Wu R, Rabeh W, Park HW, Ghanefar M, Ardehali H |title=Regulation and cytoprotective role of hexokinase III |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=e13823 |date=3 November 2010 |pmid=21072205 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0013823 |pmc=2972215|doi-access=free |bibcode=2010PLoSO...513823W }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Reid S, Masters C |title=On the developmental properties and tissue interactions of hexokinase |journal=Mechanisms of Ageing and Development |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=197–212 |date=1985 |pmid=4058069 |doi=10.1016/s0047-6374(85)80030-0|s2cid=40877603 }} This protein has a molecular mass of 100 kDa and is composed of two highly similar 50-kDa domains at its N- and C-terminals.{{cite journal |vauthors=Aleshin AE, Zeng C, Bourenkov GP, Bartunik HD, Fromm HJ, Honzatko RB |title=The mechanism of regulation of hexokinase: new insights from the crystal structure of recombinant human brain hexokinase complexed with glucose and glucose-6-phosphate |journal=Structure |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=39–50 |date=Jan 1998 |pmid=9493266 |doi=10.1016/s0969-2126(98)00006-9|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Printz RL, Osawa H, Ardehali H, Koch S, Granner DK |title=Hexokinase II gene: structure, regulation and promoter organization |journal=Biochemical Society Transactions |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=107–12 |date=February 1997 |pmid=9056853 |doi=10.1042/bst0250107|s2cid=1851264 }} This high similarity, along with the{{clarify|date=May 2017|reason=missing words?}} and the existence of a 50-kDa hexokinase (Glucokinase, or hexokinase IV), suggests that the 100-kDa hexokinases originated from a 50-kDa precursor via gene duplication and tandem ligation. As with hexokinase I, only the C-terminal domain possesses catalytic ability, whereas the N-terminal domain is predicted to contain glucose and glucose 6-phosphate binding sites, as well as a 32-residue region essential for proper protein folding. Moreover, the catalytic activity depends on the interaction between the two terminal domains. Unlike hexokinase I and hexokinase II, hexokinase III lacks a mitochondrial binding sequence at its N-terminal.{{cite journal |vauthors=Lowes W, Walker M, Alberti KG, Agius L |title=Hexokinase isoenzymes in normal and cirrhotic human liver: suppression of glucokinase in cirrhosis |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |volume=1379 |issue=1 |pages=134–42 |date=Jan 1998 |pmid=9468341 |doi=10.1016/s0304-4165(97)00092-5}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Federzoni EA, Valk PJ, Torbett BE, Haferlach T, Löwenberg B, Fey MF, Tschan MP |title=PU.1 is linking the glycolytic enzyme hexokinase III in neutrophil differentiation and survival of APL cells |journal=Blood |volume=119 |issue=21 |pages=4963–70 |date=May 2012 |pmid=22498738 |doi=10.1182/blood-2011-09-378117 |pmc=3367898}}

Function

As a cytoplasmic isoform of hexokinase and a member of the sugar kinase family, hexokinase III catalyzes the rate-limiting and first obligatory step of glucose metabolism, which is the ATP-dependent phosphorylation of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate.{{cite journal | vauthors = Gao HY, Luo XG, Chen X, Wang JH | title = Identification of key genes affecting disease free survival time of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia based on bioinformatic analysis | journal = Blood Cells, Molecules & Diseases | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–43 | date = Jan 2015 | pmid = 25172542 | doi = 10.1016/j.bcmd.2014.08.002 }} Physiological levels of glucose 6-phosphate can regulate this process by inhibiting hexokinase III as negative feedback, though inorganic phosphate can relieve glucose 6-phosphate inhibition. Inorganic phosphate can also directly regulate hexokinase III, and the double regulation may better suit its anabolic functions. By phosphorylating glucose, hexokinase III effectively prevents glucose from leaving the cell and, thus, commits glucose to energy metabolism. Compared to hexokinase I and hexokinase II, hexokinase III possesses a higher affinity for glucose and will bind the substrate even at physiological levels, though this binding may be attenuated by intracellular ATP. Uniquely, hexokinase III can be inhibited by glucose at high concentrations.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cárdenas ML, Cornish-Bowden A, Ureta T| title = Evolution and regulatory role of the hexokinases |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research| volume = 1401 | issue = 3 | pages = 242–64 | date = March 1998 | pmid = 9540816 | doi=10.1016/s0167-4889(97)00150-x| doi-access = }} hexokinase III is also less sensitive to glucose 6-phosphate inhibition.

Despite its lack of mitochondrial association, hexokinase III also functions to protect the cell against apoptosis. Overexpression of hexokinase III has resulted in increased ATP levels, decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, attenuated reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential, and enhanced mitochondrial biogenesis. Overall, hexokinase III may promote cell survival by controlling ROS levels and boosting energy production. Currently, only hypoxia is known to induce hexokinase III expression through a HIF-dependent pathway. The inducible expression of hexokinase III indicates its adaptive role in metabolic responses to changes in the cellular environment.

In particular, Hk3 is ubiquitously expressed in tissues, albeit at relatively low abundance. Higher abundance levels have been cited in lung, kidney, and liver tissue. Within cells, hexokinase III localizes to the cytoplasm and putatively binds the perinuclear envelope. hexokinase III is the predominant hexokinase in myeloid cells, particularly granulocytes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Federzoni EA, Humbert M, Torbett BE, Behre G, Fey MF, Tschan MP | title = CEBPA-dependent hexokinase III and KLF5 expression in primary AML and during AML differentiation | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 4 | pages = 4261 | date = 3 March 2014 | pmid = 24584857 | doi = 10.1038/srep04261 | pmc=3939455| bibcode = 2014NatSR...4E4261F }}

Clinical significance

Hexokinase III is found to be overexpressed in malignant follicular thyroid nodules. In conjunction with cyclin A and galectin-3, hexokinase III could be used as diagnostic biomarker to screen for malignancy in patients.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hooft L, van der Veldt AA, Hoekstra OS, Boers M, Molthoff CF, van Diest PJ | title = Hexokinase III, cyclin A and galectin-3 are overexpressed in malignant follicular thyroid nodules | journal = Clinical Endocrinology | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 252–7 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 17868400 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2007.03031.x | s2cid = 25298962 }} Meanwhile, hexokinase III was found to be repressed in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) blast cells and acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) patients. The transcription factor PU.1 is known to directly activate transcription of the antiapoptotic BCL2A1 gene or inhibit transcription of the p53 tumor suppressor to promote cell survival, and is proposed to also directly activate Hk3 transcription during neutrophil differentiation to support short-term cell survival of mature neutrophils. Regulators repressing hexokinase III expression in AML include PML-RARA and CEBPA. Regarding acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), functional enrichment analysis revealed Hk3 as a key gene and suggests that hexokinase III shares antiapoptotic function with HK1 and HK2.

Hexokinase III

Structure

Function

Clinical significance

Interactions

Interactive pathway map

See also

References

Further reading

External links