Homelessness in the United States

Following the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England, constables were authorized under 1383 English Poor Laws to collar vagabonds and force them to show support. If they could not, the penalty was gaol.{{cite book |title = Controlling Misbehavior in England,1370–1600 |author-link1 = Marjorie McIntosh |author = Marjorie Keniston McIntosh |year = 1998 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-89404-3 }}

Vagabonds could be sentenced to the stocks for three days and nights. In 1530, whipping was added. The presumption was that vagabonds were unlicensed beggars. In 1547, a bill was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law, namely two years' servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offense and death for the second.

Large numbers of vagabonds were among the convicts transported to the American colonies in the 18th century.[http://www.earlyamericancrime.com/www.earlyamericancrime.com/convict-transportation/convict-voyages/overview-2 Convict Voyages (1): Overview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115231342/http://www.earlyamericancrime.com/convict-transportation/convict-voyages/overview-2 |date=November 15, 2019 }}, by Anthony Vaver, Early American Crime, January 6, 2009

File:Boweryrm.jpg at 36 Bowery in New York City, {{circa|1880s}}]]

Homelessness emerged as a national issue in the 1870s. There are no national figures documenting homeless people's demography at this time. Jacob Riis wrote about, documented, and photographed the poor and destitute, although not specifically homeless people, in New York City tenements in the late 19th century. His book, How the Other Half Lives, published in 1890, raised public awareness of living conditions in the slums, causing some changes in building codes and some social conditions.

The growing movement toward social concern sparked the development of rescue missions, such as America's first rescue mission, the New York City Rescue Mission, founded in 1872 by Jerry and Maria McAuley.{{cite web |url = http://www.nycrescue.org/ |title = New York City Rescue Mission website |access-date = September 17, 2014 |archive-date = August 26, 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140826064418/http://nycrescue.org/ |url-status = live }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.nycrescue.org/413019.ihtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107144623/http://www.nycrescue.org/413019.ihtml|url-status=dead|title=New York City Rescue Mission|archive-date=November 7, 2011|website=New York City Rescue Mission}} In smaller towns, there were hobos, who temporarily lived near train tracks and hopped onto trains to various destinations. Especially following the American Civil War, a large number of homeless men formed part of a counterculture known as "hobohemia" all over America.Depastino, Todd, [https://books.google.com/books?id=6RFcUQKNm08C "Citizen Hobo: How a Century of Homelessness Shaped America"], Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0-226-14378-3}}. ([http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/143783in.html Interview with Todd Depastino] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808230303/https://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/143783in.html |date=August 8, 2020 }}){{cite web |url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/rails/ |title = Riding the Rails |website = PBS |access-date = September 17, 2014 |archive-date = December 12, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161212090621/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/rails/ |url-status = live }}

By the late 19th century, many American towns and cities had significant numbers of homeless people.[https://www.farsnews.ir/news/13990431001273 Homelessness in America; A non-economic problem!] retrieved 1 October 2023 In New York City, for example, there was an area known as "the Bowery". Rescue missions offering "soup, soap, and salvation", a phrase introduced by The Salvation Army,Salvation Army, [http://www.salvationarmy-newyork.org/SSGNY/index.php?id=_about-history "History of The Salvation Army Social Services of Greater New York"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107004550/http://www.salvationarmy-newyork.org/SSGNY/index.php?id=_about-history |date=January 7, 2007}} sprang up along the Bowery thoroughfare, including the oldest one, The Bowery Mission. The mission was founded in 1879 by the Rev. and Mrs. A.G. Ruliffson.{{cite web |url = http://www.bowery.org/Display.asp?Page=OurHistory |title = The history of The Bowery Mission, Mont Lawn Camp, and Mont Lawn City Camp | The Bowery Mission |website = Bowery.org |access-date = March 28, 2017 |archive-date = June 11, 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100611130513/http://www.bowery.org/Display.asp?Page=OurHistory |url-status = live }}

File:Unemployed men queued outside a depression soup kitchen opened in Chicago by Al Capone, 02-1931 - NARA - 541927.jpg opened by Al Capone in Depression-era Chicago, Illinois, the US, 1931]]

The Great Depression of the 1930s caused a devastating epidemic of poverty, hunger, and homelessness. There were two million homeless people migrating across the United States.[http://amhist.ist.unomaha.edu/lessons/Ruben%20Cano_Why%20did%20the%20Great%20Depression%20happen%3F_lesson_template_mps.doc Overproduction of Goods, Unequal Distribution of Wealth, High Unemployment, and Massive Poverty] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205005617/http://amhist.ist.unomaha.edu/lessons/Ruben%20Cano_Why%20did%20the%20Great%20Depression%20happen?_lesson_template_mps.doc |date=February 5, 2009 }}, From: President's Economic Council Many lived in shantytowns they called "Hoovervilles" deriding the President they blamed for the Depression. Residents lived in shacks and begged for food or went to soup kitchens. Authorities did not officially recognize these Hoovervilles and occasionally removed the occupants for technically trespassing on private lands, but they were frequently tolerated out of necessity. When Franklin D. Roosevelt took over the presidency from Herbert Hoover, he passed the New Deal, which greatly expanded social welfare, including providing funds to build public housing.KENNEDY, DAVID M. "What the New Deal Did." Political Science Quarterly, vol. 124, no. 2, [The Academy of Political Science, Wiley], 2009, pp. 251–68, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25655654 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028043235/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25655654 |date=October 28, 2021 }}.

A 1960 survey by Temple University of Philadelphia's poor neighborhoods found that 75 percent of the homeless were over 45 years old, and 87 percent were white."The men on skid row: A study of Philadelphia's homeless man population", Department of Psychiatry, Temple University School of Medicine, November 1960.

The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 was a pre-disposing factor in setting the stage for homelessness in the United States.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1215/03616878-9-1-1 |author = Rochefort DA |title = Origins of the "Third psychiatric revolution": the Community Mental Health Centers Act of 1963 |journal = J Health Polit Policy Law |volume = 9 |issue = 1 |pages = 1–30 |year = 1984 |pmid = 6736594 |url = http://jhppl.dukejournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6736594 |access-date = November 16, 2010 |archive-url = https://archive.today/20120709153258/http://jhppl.dukejournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6736594 |archive-date = July 9, 2012 |url-status = dead |df = mdy-all |url-access = subscription }} Long term psychiatric patients were released from state hospitals into single-room occupancies and sent to community health centers for treatment and follow-up. Never adequately funded, the community mental health system struggled to meet patient needs"Kennedy's vision for mental health never realized", USA Today, October 20, 2013. Retrieved September 18, 2018, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/10/20/kennedys-vision-mental-health/3100001/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918232546/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/10/20/kennedys-vision-mental-health/3100001/ |date=September 18, 2018 }} and many of the "deinstitutionalized" wound up living on the streets, with no sustainable support system.{{cite journal |doi = 10.2307/3561609 |author = Feldman S |title = Out of the hospital, onto the streets: the overselling of benevolence |jstor = 3561609 |journal = Hastings Cent Rep |volume = 13 |issue = 3 |pages = 5–7 |date = June 1983 |pmid = 6885404 }}{{cite journal |author = Borus JF |title = Sounding Board. Deinstitutionalization of the chronically mentally ill |journal = N. Engl. J. Med. |volume = 305 |issue = 6 |pages = 339–42 |date = August 1981 |pmid = 7242636 |doi = 10.1056/NEJM198108063050609 }} In the United States, during the late 1970s, the deinstitutionalization of patients from state psychiatric hospitals was a precipitating factor which seeded the population of people that are homeless, especially in urban areas such as New York City.{{cite journal |vauthors = Scherl DJ, Macht LB |title = Deinstitutionalization in the absence of consensus |journal = Hosp Community Psychiatry |volume = 30 |issue = 9 |pages = 599–604 |date = September 1979 |pmid = 223959 |url = http://ps.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=223959 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120106115504/http://ps.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=223959 |url-status = dead |archive-date = January 6, 2012 |doi = 10.1176/ps.30.9.599 |url-access = subscription }}

File:Great Fire of 1911 with homeless man.jpg]]

The number of homeless people grew in the 1980s, nearly doubling from 1984 to 1987. According to Don Mitchell, this was in part due to the neoliberal reforms of the Reagan presidency, as housing and social service cuts increased and also the economy suffered a recession early in the decade.{{cite news |last=Kirk|first=Mimi |date=May 13, 2020 |title=How the Streets Got So Mean|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-13/what-causes-homelessness-start-with-capitalism|work=Bloomberg |location= |access-date=July 13, 2023}}{{cite book |last=Mitchell|first=Don |author-link=Don Mitchell (geographer)|date=2020 |title=Mean Streets: Homelessness, Public Space, and the Limits of Capital|url=https://ugapress.org/book/9780820356907/mean-streets/|location= |publisher=University of Georgia Press|page=62 |isbn=9-780-8203-5690-7}} In 1984, the Federal government determined that somewhere between 200,000 and 500,000 Americans were homeless.Joint Hearing op. cit., May 1984, p. 32 IUD Office for Policy Development and Research, A Report to the Secretary on the Homeless and Emergency Shelters, May 1, 1986. There were some U.S. federal initiatives that aimed to help, end and prevent homelessness. However, there were no designated homeless-related programs in the Office of Management and Budget.{{cite web |url = http://www.usich.gov/funding_programs/programs/ |title = Programs | Funding & Programs | United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH) |publisher = Usich.gov |access-date = August 1, 2013 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130802011016/http://www.usich.gov/funding_programs/programs |archive-date = August 2, 2013 |df = mdy-all }} Tent cities, which had largely vanished during the post-war period, began to re-emerge during this time.

The history of the United States in the 1980s illustrates that this was a time when there was economic distress, and high unemployment at points, and was the period when chronic homelessness became a societal problem. In 1980, federal funds accounted for 22% of big city budgets. By 1989, the similar aid composed only 6% of urban revenue, part of a larger 60% decrease in federal spending to support local governments.Common Dreams: [http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0610-01.htm Urban Suffering Grew Under Reagan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516100105/http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0610-01.htm |date=May 16, 2006 }} It is largely, although not exclusively, in these urban areas, that homelessness became widespread and reached unprecedented numbers.

Most notable were cuts to federal low-income housing programs. An advocacy group claims that Congress halved the budget for public housing and Section 8, the government's housing voucher subsidization program, and that between 1980 and 1989, HUD's budget authority was reduced from $74 billion, to $19 billion. Such alleged changes are claimed to have resulted in an inadequate supply of affordable housing to meet the growing demand of low-income populations. In 1970, there were 300,000 more low-cost rental units (6.5 million) than low-income renter households (6.2 million). By 1985, the advocacy group claimed that the number of low-cost units had fallen to 5.6 million, and the number of low-income renter households had grown to 8.9 million, a disparity of 3.3 million units.National Housing Institute: [http://www.nhi.org/online/issues/135/reagan.html Reagan's Legacy: Homelessness in America] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041027055709/http://www.nhi.org/online/issues/135/reagan.html |date=October 27, 2004 }}

In response to the ensuing homelessness crisis of the 1980s and after many years of advocacy and numerous revisions, President Reagan signed into law the McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act in 1987. This remains the only piece of federal legislation that allocates funding to the direct service of homeless people. The McKinney–Vento Act paved the way for service providers in the coming years. In the 1990s, homeless shelters, soup kitchens, and other supportive services sprouted up in towns and cities nationally. Despite these efforts and the dramatic economic growth marked by this decade, homeless numbers rose and remained high from 1990 to 1999 according to the "coalition for the homeless" webpage.{{cite web |title = State of the Homeless 2014 |url = https://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/state-of-the-homeless-2014/ |website = Coalition for the Homeless |access-date = October 17, 2022 |archive-date = October 18, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221018021807/https://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/state-of-the-homeless-2014/ |url-status = live }}

It became increasingly apparent that simply providing services to alleviate the symptoms of homelessness, such as shelter beds, hot meals, psychiatric counseling, although needed, were not successful at solving the root causes of homelessness. In 1987, the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH), a federal agency contained in the Executive Branch, was established as a requirement of the McKinney–Vento Act of 1987.

Historically, the U.S. has approached addressing homelessness through a Treatment First approach, which operates on the idea that housing must be earned through abstinence from substance use or mental health treatment. In the 1980s, the Housing First approach raised a challenge to Treatment First. The Housing First approach, initially developed by homeless advocates, operates on the idea that housing is a right, and individuals have the option to address other underlying issues after they are housed. The federal government adopted Housing First as the primary solution to ending homelessness. To implement this model, permanent supportive housing (PSH) was ascribed as a key solution to reducing homelessness. It is argued that Housing First is more effective in addressing homelessness than Treatment First as it prioritizes a person's wellbeing over cost efficiency. Housing reduces persons experiencing homelessness’ exposure to health risks and mental health strains.

A 1990 survey found that most homeless people were unable to bathe or shower.{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1037/h0079653 |pmid = 7485420 |title = Lifetime and five-year prevalence of homelessness in the United States: New evidence on an old debate |journal = American Journal of Orthopsychiatry |volume = 65 |issue = 3 |pages = 347–354 |year = 1995 |last1 = Link |first1 = Bruce |last2 = Phelan |first2 = Jo |last3 = Bresnahan |first3 = Michaeline |last4 = Stueve |first4 = Ann |last5 = Moore |first5 = Robert |last6 = Susser |first6 = Ezra }}

In 1992, the National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing published a report identifying 6% of public housing as "severely distressed".National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing (U, National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing (US) Staff, & National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing (US). (1992). The final report of the National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing: A report to the Congress and the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. Commission.

This led to a 5 billion dollar funding package, HOPE VI, for replacing distressed public housing with mixed-income developments.Popkin, S. J. (2004). A decade of HOPE VI: Research findings and policy challenges. The demolition of SROs was incentivized by increased real estate prices and neighborhood pressure, resulting in the teardown of more units than were initially identified. Redevelopments did not include nearly as many units of public housing as were demolished, decreasing the total stock of public housing and putting more people on the streets.False, H. O. P. E. (2002). a Critical Assessment of the HOPE VI Public Housing Redevelopment Program. Prepared by the National Housing Law Project, Poverty & Race Research Action Council, Sherwood Research Associates, and Everywhere and Now Public Housing Residents Organizing Nationally Together. Oakland, CA: National Housing Law Project.

{{See also|Great Recession in the United States}}

{{see also|Missing middle housing|Starter home}}

[[File:New Multifamily Units Constructed.webp|thumb|400px|New multifamily units constructed, 1999 to 2021.

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According to the U.S. Conference of Mayors, the demand for emergency shelter in 270 U.S. cities increased 13 percent in 2001 and 25 percent in 2005. Twenty-two percent of those requesting emergency shelter were turned away.

File:San Francisco Homeless Tents.jpg, 2017]]

In response to the Great Recession in the United States, President Obama signed several pieces of legislation that addressed the homelessness crisis. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 addressed homelessness prevention, in which he allocated an additional $1.5 billion to HUD for the "Homelessness Prevention and Rapid Rehousing Program (HPRP)." The purpose of HPRP was to assist individuals and families who are otherwise healthy and not chronically homeless in escaping homelessness or preventing homelessness of the vulnerable population.United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, [http://www.hudhre.info/hprp/ "Homelessness Prevention and Rapid Re-Housing Program"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100224204655/http://www.hudhre.info/hprp/|date=February 24, 2010}}

In May 2009, President Obama signed the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act, reauthorizing HUDs Homeless Assistance programs. It was part of the Helping Families Save Their Homes Act of 2009. The HEARTH act allows for the prevention of homelessness, rapid re-housing, consolidation of housing programs, and new homeless categories.National Alliance to End Homelessness, [http://www.endhomelessness.org/content/general/detail/2098 "Summary of HEARTH Act"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217224733/http://www.endhomelessness.org/content/general/detail/2098|date=February 17, 2010}}, June 8, 2009[http://www.nlchp.org/content/pubs/HEARTH_Act_Overview_for_Web1.pdf "The HEARTH Act – An Overview"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008230454/http://www.nlchp.org/content/pubs/HEARTH_Act_Overview_for_Web1.pdf|date=October 8, 2010}}, National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, Washington, D.C.National Coalition for the Homeless, [http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/2009Policy/HMV.pdf "NCH Public Policy Recommendations: HUD McKinney-Vento Reauthorization"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100202033318/http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/2009Policy/HMV.pdf|date=February 2, 2010}}, Washington, D.C., September 14, 2009{{cite web |date=December 1, 2010 |title=HUD Press Release, December 1, 2010 |url=http://portal.hud.gov:80/hudportal/HUD?src=/press/press_releases_media_advisories/2010/HUDNo.10-260 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305073833/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fpress%2Fpress_releases_media_advisories%2F2010%2FHUDNo.10-260 |archive-date=March 5, 2012 |access-date=June 19, 2012 |publisher=Portal.hud.gov:80 |df=mdy-all}}

In 2011, the Federal government launched of Opening Doors: The Federal Strategic Plan to Prevent and End Homelessness.{{cite web |title=Opening Doors |url=http://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/Opening%20Doors%202010%20FINAL%20FSP%20Prevent%20End%20Homeless.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525091022/http://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/Opening%20Doors%202010%20FINAL%20FSP%20Prevent%20End%20Homeless.pdf |archive-date=May 25, 2013 |access-date=March 7, 2014 |publisher=Usich.gov |df=mdy-all}}USICH, "Opening Doors: Federal Strategic Plan to Prevent and End Homelessness. Opening Doors is a publication of the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, which worked with all Federal agencies and many state and local stakeholders on its creation and vision, setting a ten-year path on preventing and ending all types of homelessness. This plan was presented to the President and Congress in a White House Ceremony in June 2010.{{cite web |author=Barbara Poppe |date=June 16, 2010 |title=Opening Doors | The White House |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2010/06/15/obama-administration-unveil-national-strategic-plan-prevent-and-end-homelessness |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121002230/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2010/06/15/obama-administration-unveil-national-strategic-plan-prevent-and-end-homelessness |archive-date=January 21, 2017 |access-date=June 19, 2012 |work=whitehouse.gov |via=National Archives}}

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| quote = I've got economically zero unemployment in my city, and I've got thousands of homeless people that actually are working and just can't afford housing. There's nowhere for these folks to move to.

| author = Seattle City Council member Mike O'Brien on the explosion of homelessness on the West Coast, 2019.{{cite news |url = https://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2017/11/05/homeless-explosion-on-west-coast-pushing-cities-to-their-limits/ |title = Homeless explosion on West Coast pushing cities to the brink |date = November 5, 2019 |work = CBS Sacramento |access-date = October 8, 2019 |archive-date = October 8, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191008180022/https://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2017/11/05/homeless-explosion-on-west-coast-pushing-cities-to-their-limits/ |url-status = live }}|

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In New York City, the number of homeless people using nightly shelter service tripled from about 20,000 to more than 60,000 between January 2000 and January 2015.{{cite web |date=March 24, 2017 |title=Home |url=http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323195942/http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/ |archive-date=March 23, 2017 |access-date=March 28, 2017 |publisher=Coalition For The Homeless}} By 2016, homelessness was considered an epidemic in several U.S. cities. In 2016, Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti and seven of the 15 City Council members announced they would declare a state of emergency and try to find $100 million "to cure what has become a municipal curse."{{cite web |date=March 9, 2016 |title=Bill Boyarsky: Finally Acknowledging the Obvious, Los Angeles Moves to Declare a State of Emergency on Homelessness |url=http://www.truthdig.com/eartotheground/item/los_angeles_officials_homeless_state_of_emergency_20150923 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331085044/http://www.truthdig.com/eartotheground/item/los_angeles_officials_homeless_state_of_emergency_20150923 |archive-date=March 31, 2017 |access-date=March 28, 2017 |website=Truthdig.com}}

In September 2018, in Martin v. City of Boise, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that the city's Camping and Disorderly Conduct Ordinances violated the Eighth Amendment's prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment. Cities cannot punish homeless people for sleeping in public when the homeless shelters are full.{{cite web |date=2018 |title=MARTIN V. CITY OF BOISE |url=http://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/opinions/2018/09/04/15-35845.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905064921/http://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/opinions/2018/09/04/15-35845.pdf |archive-date=September 5, 2018 |access-date=September 5, 2018 |website=cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov}}

During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, mass job loss and unemployment led to fears of mass evictions, as tenants became unable to pay rent.{{cite news |date=August 10, 2020 |title='A Homeless Pandemic' Looms As 30 Million Are At Risk Of Eviction |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/08/10/900766719/millions-of-americans-are-in-danger-of-being-evicted-during-pandemic |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122044535/https://www.npr.org/2020/08/10/900766719/millions-of-americans-are-in-danger-of-being-evicted-during-pandemic |archive-date=January 22, 2021 |access-date=August 28, 2020 |publisher=NPR}} According to US government sources, homelessness has increased drastically, particularly in the US West, as real estate shortages drove up rents even higher, when people from already lower income levels were laid off from their jobs and evicted from existing housing. The estimates for homeless persons in the US during the COVID-19 pandemic range from 600,000 to 1.5 million people, making the US the worst affected industrialized country with regard to unhoused individuals.[https://www.prb.org/how-many-people-in-the-united-states-are-experiencing-homelessness/ "How Many People in the United States Are Experiencing Homelessness?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430035850/https://www.prb.org/how-many-people-in-the-united-states-are-experiencing-homelessness/|date=April 30, 2021}}. prb.org. Retrieved 29. April 2021[https://www.californialawreview.org/print/hiding-homelessness-the-transcarceration-of-homelessness/ "Hiding Homelessness: The Transcarceration of Homelessness"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430035849/https://www.californialawreview.org/print/hiding-homelessness-the-transcarceration-of-homelessness/|date=April 30, 2021}} California Law Review. Retrieved 29. April 2021.

In 2020, local city governments in California and Oregon started to intensify anti-homelessness campaigns, with limited success as local citizens reported extensive sprawls of homeless people in parks and public areas, creating unsanitary conditions with negative effects on small businesses. In March 2021, there were an estimated 6.4 million American households that were behind on rent.{{cite web |date=August 6, 2021 |title=Temporary Halt in Residential Evictions in Communities With Substantial or High Transmission of COVID-19 To Prevent the Further Spread of COVID-19 |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/08/06/2021-16945/temporary-halt-in-residential-evictions-in-communities-with-substantial-or-high-transmission-of |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222152305/https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/08/06/2021-16945/temporary-halt-in-residential-evictions-in-communities-with-substantial-or-high-transmission-of |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |access-date=December 12, 2021 |website=Federal Register}}

Due to COVID, the Department of Housing and Urban Development's 2021 report to Congress on the state of homelessness in the United States was unable to perform an accurate count of unsheltered homeless individuals. Instead, the report focused on point-in-time counts of sheltered homeless peoples.{{Cite web |title=HUD 2021 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report to Congress |url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2021-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315005755/https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2021-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |archive-date=March 15, 2022 |access-date=March 14, 2022}}

File:Homeless Veteran in New York.jpeg

Over the past decades, the availability and quality of data on homelessness has improved considerably, due, in part, to initiatives by the United States government. Since 2007, the US Department of Housing and Urban Development has issued an Annual Homeless Assessment Report, which revealed the number of individuals and families that were homeless, both sheltered and unsheltered.{{cite web |publisher = Huduser.org |title = First Annual Homelessness Assessment Report |url = http://www.huduser.org/Publications/pdf/ahar.pdf |access-date = April 13, 2011 |archive-date = September 15, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110915163851/http://www.huduser.org/Publications/pdf/ahar.pdf |url-status = live }}[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/how-a-perfect-storm-of-issues-is-causing-a-sharp-rise-in-homelessness "How a ‘perfect storm’ of issues is causing a sharp rise in homelessness,"] Dec 24, 2023, PBS News Hour, retrieved December 25, 2023

In the US Department of Housing and Urban Development's 2008 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, the most common demographic features of all sheltered homeless people are: male, members of minority groups, older than age 31, and alone. More than 40 percent of sheltered homeless people have a disability. At the same time, sizable segments of the sheltered homeless population are white, non-Hispanic (38 percent), children (20 percent), or part of multi-person households (33 percent). About 68 percent of the 1.6 million sheltered homeless people were homeless as individuals and 32 percent were persons in families.U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, [http://www.huduser.org/portal/publications/povsoc/ahar_4.html "The Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress (2008)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701041552/http://www.huduser.org/portal/publications/povsoc/ahar_4.html |date=July 1, 2010 }}, July 2009File:New Orleans Homeless Camp (Cropped).jpg

In 2008, more than 66% of all sheltered homeless people were located in principal cities, with 32% located in suburban or rural jurisdictions. About 40% of people entering an emergency shelter or transitional housing program during 2008 came from another homeless situation (sheltered or unsheltered), 40% came from a housed situation (in their own or someone else's home), and the remaining 20% were split between institutional settings or other situations such as hotels or motels. Most people had relatively short lengths of stay in emergency shelters: 60% stayed less than a month, and a 33% stayed a week or less.

In 2009, there were about 643,000 sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons nationwide. About two-thirds of those stayed in emergency shelters or used transitional housing programs. The remainder lived on the street in abandoned buildings or other areas not meant for human habitation. About 1.56 million people, or about 0.5% of the U.S. population, used an emergency shelter or a transitional housing program between October 1, 2008, and September 30, 2009.{{cite web |url = http://www.huduser.org/publications/pdf/5thHomelessAssessmentReport.pdf |title = HUD 5th Annual Homelessness Assessment Report to Congress |date = June 2010 |website = Huduser.org |access-date = March 28, 2017 |archive-date = September 11, 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130911021007/http://www.huduser.org/publications/pdf/5thHomelessAssessmentReport.pdf |url-status = live }} Around 44% of homeless people were employed.[http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/employment.html Employment and Homelessness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113105327/http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/employment.html |date=November 13, 2013 }}. National Coalition for the Homeless, July 2009. In 2009, it was estimated that one out of 50 children or 1.5 million children in the United States of America would experience some form of homelessness each year.{{cite web |date = June 26, 2009 |title = Facts and Figures:The Homeless |url = https://www.pbs.org/now/shows/526/homeless-facts.html |publisher = PBS |access-date = September 6, 2017 |archive-date = September 4, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170904171236/http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/526/homeless-facts.html |url-status = live }}

There were an estimated 37,878 homeless veterans in the United States in January 2017, or 8.6 percent of all homeless adults, compared with about 7 percent of the U.S. adult population in 2018 that were military veterans.[https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2018-AHAR-Part-1.pdf The 2018 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412095358/https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2018-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |date=April 12, 2019 }}. December 2018. Authors: Meghan Henry, Anna Mahathey, Tyler Morrill, Anna Robinson, Azim Shivji, and Rian Watt, Abt Associates. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).{{cite news |last1 = Schaeffer |first1 = Katherine |date = April 5, 2021 |title = The changing face of America's veteran population |publisher = Pew Research Center |url = https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/05/the-changing-face-of-americas-veteran-population/ |access-date = July 13, 2021 |archive-date = July 6, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210706132154/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/05/the-changing-face-of-americas-veteran-population/ |url-status = live }}{{cite report |url = https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/acs-43.pdf |title = Those Who Served: America's Veterans From World War II to the War on Terror |last = Vespa |first = Jonathan E. |publisher = United States Census Bureau |access-date = July 13, 2021 |year = 2020 |series = American Community Survey |archive-date = June 23, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210623182826/https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2020/demo/acs-43.pdf |url-status = live }} In 2013, Texas, California and Florida had the highest numbers of unaccompanied homeless youth under the age of 18, comprising 58% of the total homeless under 18 youth population.{{cite web |title = The 2013 Annual Homeless Assessment report (AHAR) to Congress |url = https://www.onecpd.info/resources/documents/ahar-2013-part1.pdf |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140319161102/https://www.onecpd.info/resources/documents/AHAR-2013-Part1.pdf |archive-date = March 19, 2014 |access-date = April 7, 2014 |publisher = The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development |page = 42 }} In 2020, New York City reported it had about 114,000 temporarily homeless school children.{{Cite news |last1 = Shapiro |first1 = Eliza |date = March 15, 2020 |title = New York City Public Schools to Close to Slow Spread of Coronavirus |newspaper = The New York Times |url = https://nytimes.com/2020/03/15/nyregion/nyc-schools-closed.html |access-date = March 22, 2020 |archive-date = April 2, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200402160513/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/15/nyregion/nyc-schools-closed.html |url-status = live }}

From 2007 to 2015, homelessness appeared, from the federal survey, to be in decline. Beginning in 2016, the surveys showed a steady increase in homelessness, particularly among the unsheltered.[https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2023-AHAR-Part-1.pdf "The 2023 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report to Congress,"] (AHAR), ''U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, retrieved December 25, 2023

The COVID-19 pandemic, and associated economic downturn, housing shortages and housing price inflation, outpacing wage growth, and the end of government protections and assistance to counter the economic effects of COVID-19—along with the explosive growth in addictions to methamphetamine, opioids, and Fentanyl -- contributed to a sharp rise in homelessness in the early 2020s. By 2023, according to the federal survey, a record 653,104 homeless were identified in the annual federal survey—a 12% jump over the previous year, quadruple any other year's increase, with increases in every category and demographic of homelessness.

In June 2024, the U.S. Supreme Court issued a ruling in the case Grants Pass v. Johnson that allowed for cities to ban homeless encampments.{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2024/06/28/supreme-court-decision-bans-homeless-encampments/73677194007/|title=In major decision, Supreme Court allows cities to ban homeless camps|first=Maureen|last=Groppe|publisher=USA Today|date=June 28, 2024|accessdate=June 28, 2024}} The homeless population in the United States rose by more than 18 percent in a single year in 2024, government officials said, driven by high housing costs, natural disasters and increased migration to big cities. According to the poll, the number of homeless people on a given night in January 2024 was more than 770,000. Children under 18 experienced the largest increase, with nearly 150,000 homeless on survey night. Overall, family homelessness is up 39 percent from the previous year.{{cite news |title=US homelessness hit record high in 2024 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2vwdw7zn2o |agency=BBC}}{{cite news |last1=Wendling |first1=Mike |title=US homelessness hit record high in 2024 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2vwdw7zn2o |work=BBC News |date=28 December 2024}}

File:Poor People's Campaign Moral Monday (08.02.21- DC) 03IMG 0654 (51355915550).jpg, Washington DC]]

Lack of available and affordable housing as a cause of homelessness was named at the 2004 United States Conference of Mayors, surveying the mayors of major cities on the extent and causes of urban homelessness. The next three causes identified by mayors, in rank order, were mental illness or the lack of needed services, substance use and lack of needed services, and low-paying jobs. The lowest ranking cause, cited by five mayors, was prisoner reentry. Other causes cited were unemployment, domestic violence, and poverty.

The major causes of homelessness include:United States Conference of Mayors, "A Status Report on Hunger and Homelessness in America's Cities: a 27-city survey", December 2001.{{cite web |url = http://www.usmayors.org/hungersurvey/2005/HH2005FINAL.pdf |title = A Status Report on Hunger and Homelessness in America's Cities |date = December 2005 |pages = 63–64 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081230172249/http://www.usmayors.org/hungersurvey/2005/HH2005FINAL.pdf |archive-date = December 30, 2008 |df = mdy-all }}{{cite web |title = Survey Cities Say Lack of Federal Commitment to Hurricane Evacuees Will Strain Local Limited Resources |url = http://www.mayors.org/uscm/news/press_releases/documents/hh2005_121905.pdf |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060213151517/http://mayors.org/uscm/news/press_releases/documents/hh2005_121905.pdf |archive-date = February 13, 2006 |access-date = December 21, 2016 }}{{cite web |url = http://www.sodexhousa.com/press-releases/pr122005.asp |title = Survey Cities Say Lack of Federal Commitment to Hurricane Evacuees Will Strain Local Limited Resources |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061112124120/http://www.sodexhousa.com/press-releases/pr122005.asp |archive-date = November 12, 2006 |access-date = December 21, 2016 }}Vanneman, Reeve, [http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/socy498/causes.html "Main Causes of Homelessness"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822233332/http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/socy498/causes.html |date=August 22, 2009 }}, University of MarylandCf. Levinson, Encyclopedia of Homelessness, article entry on Causes of Homelessness: Overview by Paul Koegel, pp. 50–58.

• Lack of affordable housing throughout much of the country is considered the "root cause" of the contemporary homelessness crisis. Writing for The Atlantic in 2023, Jerusalem Demsas says that "homelessness is primarily a function of the broader housing-unaffordability crisis, which in turn is primarily a function of how difficult local governments have made building new housing in the places that need it the most."{{cite news |last= Demsas|first=Jerusalem|date=July 18, 2023 |title=The Root Cause of the Homelessness Crisis|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/07/california-homelessness-housing-crisis/674737/|work=The Atlantic |location= |access-date=July 19, 2023}}
• Lack of sufficient urban housing projects to provide safe, secure, and affordable housing to the financially underprivileged. For low-wage workers, rents can be unaffordable in areas where their workplace is located.Center for Housing Policy: [http://www.nhc.org/chp/p2p/ Paycheck to Paycheck] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050424090339/http://www.nhc.org/chp/p2p/ |date=April 24, 2005 }}
• The deinstitutionalization movement from the 1950s onwards in state mental health systems, to shift towards 'community-based' treatment of the mentally ill, as opposed to long-term commitment in institutions. There is disproportionally higher prevalence of mental disorders relative to other disease groups within homeless patient populations, at both inpatient hospitals and hospital-based emergency departments.Karaca Z (AHRQ), Wong H (AHRQ), Mutter R (AHRQ). [http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb152.pdf "Characteristics of Homeless and Non-Homeless Individuals Using Inpatient and Emergency Department Services"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512203920/http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb152.pdf |date=May 12, 2013 }}, 2008. HCUP Statistical Brief #152. March 2013. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD.. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD.
• Redevelopment and gentrification activities instituted by cities, through which low-income neighborhoods are declared blighted and demolished, to make way for projects that generate higher property taxes and other revenue, creating a shortage of housing affordable to low-income working families, the elderly poor, and the disabled.
• Nearly half of foster children in the United States become homeless when they are released from foster care at age 18.Piasecki, Joe.[https://web.archive.org/web/20061017222546/http://www.pasadenaweekly.com/article.php?id=3559&IssueNum=25 "Throwaway kids: Thousands of area foster children leave county care for a dangerous and desperate life on the streets"], Pasadena Weekly, June 22, 2006.Fagan, Kevin, [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/04/11/MNGPH63KM31.DTL "Saving foster kids from the streets"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308041616/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2004%2F04%2F11%2FMNGPH63KM31.DTL |date=March 8, 2012 }}, San Francisco Chronicle, Sunday, April 11, 2004.
• Natural disasters that destroy homes: hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, etc. Places of employment are often destroyed, causing unemployment and transience.{{cite web |last = Amland |first = Bjoehn |title = Natural Disasters Displaced 42 Million In 2010; Climate Change Could Be Factor, Experts Say |url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/06/06/natural-disasters-displaced-persons_n_871664.html |website = Huffington Post |access-date = April 28, 2014 |archive-date = April 29, 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140429075735/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/06/06/natural-disasters-displaced-persons_n_871664.html |url-status = live }}
• People who have served time in prison, have used addictive substances, or have a history of mental illness find it difficult to find employment for years at a time because of the use of computer background checks by potential employers. Also inclusive of registered sex offenders who are considered unwelcome in some metropolitan areas. See prisoner reentry.National Reentry Resource Center, Travis, J. 2000. But They All Come Back: Rethinking Prisoners Reentry. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. NCJ 181413.
• People with criminal charges at large that are in hiding seeking to evade law enforcement.
• Adults and children who flee domestic violence.
• Teenagers who flee or are thrown out by parents who disapprove of their child's sexual orientation or gender identity. A 2010 study by the Center for American Progress shows that a disproportionately high number of homeless youth, between 20 and 40%, are gay or transgender.{{cite web |author1 = Quintana, Nico S. |author2 = Josh Rosenthal |author3 = Jeff Krehely |name-list-style = amp |title = Gay and Transgender Youth Homelessness by the Numbers |publisher = Center for American Progress |date = June 21, 2010 |access-date = June 26, 2015 |url = https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/lgbt/news/2010/06/21/7980/gay-and-transgender-youth-homelessness-by-the-numbers/ |archive-date = June 26, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150626153540/https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/lgbt/news/2010/06/21/7980/gay-and-transgender-youth-homelessness-by-the-numbers/ |url-status = live }}
• Complex building codes which can make it difficult to build and construct. Traditional huts, cars, and tents can be illegal, classified as substandard and may require removal by the owner or be subject to removal by the government.

File:Homeless man soliciting employment Ypsilanti Michigan.JPG]]

• Foreclosures of homes, including foreclosure of apartment complexes which displaces tenants renting there.{{cite web |last = Treves |first = Gabe |title = More Than 38 Percent of Foreclosed Homes in California are Rentals:Over 200,000 Tenants Directly Affected |url = http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/site/more-38-percent-foreclosed-homes-california-are-rentalsover-200000-tenants-directly-affected |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120105015557/http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/site/more-38-percent-foreclosed-homes-california-are-rentalsover-200000-tenants-directly-affected |url-status = dead |archive-date = January 5, 2012 |website = California Progress Report |access-date = April 28, 2014 }}
• Evictions from rented property.
• Lack of support from friends or family.
• Individuals who prefer homelessness and wish to remain off the grid for political and ideological purposes. Often self-identified as gutter punks or urban survivalists. The Department of Housing and Urban Development rarely reports on this counter-cultural movement, since its adherents often refuse to participate in governmental studies and do not seek governmental assistance for ideological or political purposes.{{cite web |last = Willick |first = Jason |title = Homeless by Choice |url = http://www.dailycal.org/2012/10/22/homeless-by-choice/ |website = The Daily Californian |access-date = April 28, 2014 |date = October 22, 2012 |archive-date = April 29, 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140429044702/http://www.dailycal.org/2012/10/22/homeless-by-choice/ |url-status = live }}
• Lack of resources in place in the communities to help aid in prevention of homelessness before it becomes a crisis.
• Neoliberal policies, reforms to the welfare state and the retrenchment of the social safety net.{{cite book |last = Lyon-Callo |first = Vincent |date = 2004 |title = Inequality, Poverty, and Neoliberal Governance: Activist Ethnography in the Homeless Sheltering Industry |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sia6HS_UM6AC&pg=PA9 |publisher = University of Toronto Press |page = 9 |isbn = 978-1-4426-0086-7 |access-date = October 23, 2020 |archive-date = February 22, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230222151510/https://books.google.com/books?id=sia6HS_UM6AC&pg=PA9 |url-status = live }}{{cite book |last = Wacquant |first = Loïc |date = 2009 |title = Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity |url = https://archive.org/details/punishingpoorneo00wacq |url-access = limited |publisher = Duke University Press |pages = [https://archive.org/details/punishingpoorneo00wacq/page/n142 52], 90, 93 |isbn = 978-0822344223 |author-link = Loïc Wacquant }}{{cite book |last1 = Collins |first1 = Victoria E. |last2 = Rothe |first2 = Dawn L. |date = 2019 |title = The Violence of Neoliberalism: Crime, Harm and Inequality |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=us2gDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 |page = 54 |publisher = Routledge |isbn = 9781138584778 |access-date = October 23, 2020 |archive-date = February 22, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230222151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=us2gDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 |url-status = live }}{{cite book |editor1-last = Berdayes |editor1-first = Vicente |editor2-last = Murphy |editor2-first = John W. |date = 2016 |title = Neoliberalism, Economic Radicalism, and the Normalization of Violence |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=G64vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 |publisher = Springer |page = 27 |isbn = 978-3-319-25169-1 |access-date = October 23, 2020 |archive-date = February 22, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230222152237/https://books.google.com/books?id=G64vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 |url-status = live }}
• High rents, in particular areas where individuals could pay over a third of their income on rent and related costs increase the potential of homelessness.{{cite news |last = Shoot |first = Brittany |date = December 14, 2018 |title = Higher Rents Correlate to Higher Homeless Rates, New Research Shows |url = http://fortune.com/2018/12/14/rent-homelessness-housing-income-zillow-research/ |work = Fortune |access-date = December 19, 2018 |archive-date = December 19, 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181219064256/http://fortune.com/2018/12/14/rent-homelessness-housing-income-zillow-research/ |url-status = live }} In poor communities, landlords increase the rent burden on tenants in what they perceive to be risky investments, extracting more profits from them than their counterparts in more affluent communities, which according to sociologist Matthew Desmond and his colleague, "directly contributes to their economic scarcity and hardship and is a source of residential insecurity, eviction, and homelessness."{{cite journal |last1=Desmond |first1=Matthew |last2=Wilmers|first2=Nathan |date=2019 |title=Do the Poor Pay More for Housing? Exploitation, Profit, and Risk in Rental Markets|url= |journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=124 |issue=4 |pages=1090–1124|doi=10.1086/701697|hdl=1721.1/135963.2 |s2cid=151231381 |access-date=|hdl-access=free }}
• Low-income workers are at increased risk of homelessness as wages for the typical American worker have stagnated over the last three decades, while housing costs have climbed, according to the National Alliance to End Homelessness.{{cite web |url=https://endhomelessness.org/homelessness-in-america/what-causes-homelessness/incomeinequality/|title=Income |author=|date= |website=National Alliance to End Homelessness|publisher= |access-date=July 19, 2023 |quote=}}

In a study on adverse childhood experiences, "Nearly nine in ten homeless adults have been exposed to at least one early traumatic experience, and more than half of homeless adults have been exposed to four or more early traumatic experiences".{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Michael |last2=Luong |first2=Linh |last3=Lachaud |first3=James |last4=Edalati |first4=Hanie |last5=Reeves |first5=Aaron |last6=Hwang |first6=Stephen W |date=2021-11-01 |title=Adverse childhood experiences and related outcomes among adults experiencing homelessness: a systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468266721001894 |journal=The Lancet Public Health |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=e836–e847 |doi=10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00189-4 |issn=2468-2667|doi-access=free }}

Homelessness is driven by a number of causes, but one of the most direct causes is a lack of affordable housing.{{Cite web |date=2023-08-22 |title=How Housing Costs Drive Levels of Homelessness |url=https://pew.org/3E021FX |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=pew.org |language=en}} According to the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, "affordable housing shortages" is among the top policy-related causes of homelessness, and 40-60% of homeless people have a job, yet still cannot afford housing.{{Cite web |last=Homelessness |first=United States Interagency Council on |title=Homelessness Data & Trends |url=https://www.usich.gov/guidance-reports-data/data-trends |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=www.usich.gov |language=en}} In academic research, homelessness rates are directly correlated with increases in rent, most notably when the cost of rent in an area exceeds 30% of an area's median income.{{Cite journal |last1=Glynn |first1=Chris |last2=Byrne |first2=Thomas H. |last3=Culhane |first3=Dennis P. |date=2021-06-01 |title=Inflection points in community-level homeless rates |url=https://projecteuclid.org/journals/annals-of-applied-statistics/volume-15/issue-2/Inflection-points-in-community-level-homeless-rates/10.1214/20-AOAS1414.full |journal=The Annals of Applied Statistics |volume=15 |issue=2 |doi=10.1214/20-AOAS1414 |issn=1932-6157|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |last=Research |first=Zillow |date=2018-12-11 |title=Homelessness Rises Faster Where Rent Exceeds a Third of Income |url=https://www.zillow.com/research/homelessness-rent-affordability-22247/ |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=Zillow |language=en-US}} In 2023, the surge in homelessness has been linked to soaring rents eating away at any worker wage gains not only in California and Washington, but also Arizona, Ohio, Tennessee and Texas.{{cite news |last=Napolitano|first=Elizabeth |date=January 26, 2024|title=Record number of Americans are homeless amid nationwide surge in rent, report finds|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rent-homelessness-harvard-report-center-for-housing-studies/|work=CBS News |location= |access-date=September 26, 2024}}

In 2024, in California in particular, high housing costs were found to be a key driver of homelessness.{{Cite web |title=High housing costs, mental health issues drive state's homelessness |url=https://spectrumnews1.com/ca/la-west/homelessness/2023/06/20/high-housing-costs--pre-exisitng-mental-health-issues-drive-ca-homelessness |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=spectrumnews1.com |language=en}} A 2023 survey of homeless individuals in California found that among typical causes of homelessness, many people were driven into homelessness due to high rents and low incomes which could not cover the cost of rent.{{Cite web |date=2023-06-20 |title=New study says high housing costs, low income push Californians into homelessness |url=https://apnews.com/article/homeless-california-study-poverty-high-rent-a2a4bfc9b386cb70fdd14d593f31b68c |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=AP News |language=en}} In San Diego, according to a 2023 report by the Private Equity Stakeholder Project, Blackstone Inc. has contributed to the problem through aggressive evictions and rent increases of some 43-64% on vacant properties in two years.{{cite news |last= Menezes |first=Shandel |date=March 25, 2023 |title=New Report Claims Blackstone Group is Buying San Diego's Affordable Housing, Hiking Up Rent Prices|url=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/new-report-claims-blackstone-group-is-buying-san-diegos-affordable-housing-hiking-up-rent-prices/3195265/|work=KNSD|location= |access-date=May 30, 2024}}{{cite news |last=Kim|first=Juri |date= April 10, 2023|title=Town hall: America's largest landlord raises rent, evicts tenants in SD|url=https://sdnews.com/town-hall-americas-largest-landlord-raises-rent-evicts-tenants-in-sd/|work=sdnews.com |location= |access-date=May 30, 2024}}

In a 2022 book titled "Homelessness is a Housing Problem", Clayton Page Aldern, a policy analyst and data scientist in Seattle, and Gregg Colburn, an assistant professor of real estate at the University of Washington's College of Built Environments, studied homelessness rates across the country, along with what possible factors might be influencing the rates. They found that high rates of homelessness are caused by shortages of affordable housing, not by mental illness, drug addiction, or poverty.

{{cite news | url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-07-11/new-book-links-homelessness-city-prosperity | title=Cause of homelessness? It's not drugs or mental illness, researchers say | last=Warth | first=Gary | newspaper=Los Angeles Times | date=July 11, 2022 | quote=In their University of California Press book “Homelessness is a Housing Problem,” authors Clayton Page Aldern and Gregg Colburn looked at various contributing issues of homelessness, including mental illness and addiction, and the per capita rate of homelessness around the country. By looking at the rate of homeless per 1,000 people, they found communities with the highest housing costs had some of the highest rates of homelessness, something that might be overlooked when looking at just the overall raw number of homeless people. | access-date=July 29, 2022 | archive-date=July 29, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729054338/https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-07-11/new-book-links-homelessness-city-prosperity | url-status=live }}{{cite news | url=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/homeless/is-homelessness-a-housing-problem-two-seattle-experts-make-their-case-in-new-book/ | title=Is homelessness a housing problem? Two Seattle experts make their case in new book | last=Greenstone | first=Scott | newspaper=The Seattle Times | date=March 22, 2022 | quote=But when Colburn compared cities with high and low numbers of homelessness based on poverty, drug use and mental health treatment factors, there was a clear answer that housing plays an outsize role in homelessness — and most academics have agreed on it for a while. It just hasn't been embraced by the general public yet. | access-date=July 29, 2022 | archive-date=July 29, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729054338/https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/homeless/is-homelessness-a-housing-problem-two-seattle-experts-make-their-case-in-new-book/ | url-status=live }} They found that mental illness, drug addiction and poverty occur nationwide, but not all places have equally expensive housing costs.{{r | LAT_2022-07-11 | p=1 | q=Aldern, a data scientist and policy analyst in Seattle, and Colburn, an assistant professor of real estate at the University of Washington's College of Built Environments, said they are not suggesting that mental illness, addictions and other issues are not contributing factors to homelessness. "That's certainly not the point of the book," Colburn said. "But I firmly believe that we can't treat our way out of this problem. You could fix all the addiction in San Diego right now and you'd still have a problem with homelessness because there just aren't places for people to go who have lower levels of income." ... "Pretty soon it became very clear that rental costs and vacancy rates were by far the biggest predictor of rates of homelessness in a community," Colburn said. "It's not the only factor. There are all sorts of complicated phenomenon, but it's a far more convincing phenomenon than anything else." }} One example cited is that two states with high rates of opioid addiction, Arkansas and West Virginia, both have low per capita rates of homelessness, because of low housing prices.{{r | LAT_2022-07-11 | p=1 | q="We're not trying to dispute that these individual vulnerabilities matter," he said. "They certainly do. But the point is, there are people who are addicted and mentally ill in Chicago, and Chicago has one-fifth the homelessness of Seattle and San Francisco. So what's going on here? The point is these individual vulnerabilities interact with housing markets to produce homelessness." The researchers looked at homelessness in West Virginia and Arkansas, which were hit hard by the opioid epidemic, and found the homeless rate was low. Housing prices in those states also are lower than in many cities with higher homeless rates, Colburn said. }} {{r | ST_2022-03-22 | p=1 | q=We could cure every case of substance use disorders and mental illness in Seattle among the unsheltered population, and we would still have one of the highest per capita rates of homelessness in the country. It might be less visible, and that might make us as a community feel better. ... To someone who says, "Will housing fix all of this? Or will there still be people on the street?," we say that Seattle has five times the homelessness of Chicago. But there's still homelessness, and there are people panhandling in Chicago. And so we aren't suggesting that accommodating housing markets will end all homelessness. What we're saying is, it doesn't need to be five times what Chicago is.}} With respect to poverty, the city of Detroit is one of the poorest cities, yet Detroit's homelessness rate is 20% that of West Coast cities like Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego.

{{r | LAT_2022-07-11 | p=1 | q=Poverty also is a contributing factor of homelessness, but the researchers found areas with high poverty rates don't necessarily have high homelessness rates if housing costs are lower. As an example, Colburn said Detroit is one of the most impoverished cities in the country, but it has one-fifth the homelessness of West Coast cities on a per capita basis. }} {{r | ST_2022-03-22 | p=1 | q="Housing market conditions explain why high-poverty cities like Detroit and Cleveland have low rates of homelessness," Colburn and Aldern write. "Housing market conditions also explain why some growing cities, like Charlotte, North Carolina, are not characterized by the levels of homelessness that coastal boomtowns like Boston, Seattle, Portland, and San Francisco are. … High rental costs and low vacancy rates create a challenging market for many residents in a city, and those challenges are compounded for people with low incomes and/or physical or mental health concerns." }}

The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development acknowledges four categories of people who qualify as legally homeless: (1) those who are currently homeless, (2) those who will become homeless in the imminent future, (3) certain youths and families with children who suffer from home instability caused by a hardship, and (4) those who suffer from home instability caused by domestic violence.The rules and regulations promulgated by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) pursuant to the McKinney-Vento Homelessness Assistance Act of 1987, as amended by the Homeless Emergency Assistance and Rapid Transition to Housing (HEARTH) Act of 2009, codified at [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/11301 42 U.S.C. § 11301] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809172430/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/11301 |date=August 9, 2017 }} et. seq.

According to the 1994 Stewart B. McKinney Act, a person is considered homeless if they "lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence and ... has a primary nighttime residency that is: (A) a supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations... (B) an institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized, or (C) a public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings." Human Rights Watch (2010) identified emancipated teenagers in California as a new homeless population.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

{{Main|Homeless veterans in the United States}}

Homeless veterans are persons who have served in the armed forces, who are homeless or living without access to secure and appropriate accommodation. In January 2020, by HUD point-in-time measurements, there were an estimated 37,252 homeless veterans in the United States, or 8 percent of all homeless adults. In 2020, just over 8 percent of homeless U.S. veterans were female.{{Cite web |title = HUD 2020 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report to Congress |url = https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2020-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |access-date = May 8, 2021 |archive-date = May 10, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210510010134/https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2020-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |url-status = live }}

Throughout the 21st century, homeless service providers and the Federal government have been able to reduce chronic homelessness and homelessness among Veterans with targeted efforts and interagency cooperation on initiatives, like the HUD-VASH program.{{cite web |url = http://www.huduser.org/Publications/pdf/2009_homeless_508.pdf |title = The 2009 Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress |website = Husueser.org |access-date = March 28, 2017 |archive-date = May 10, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150510043908/http://www.huduser.org/Publications/pdf/2009_homeless_508.pdf |url-status = live }} Indeed, the prominent role of the Department of Veterans Affairs and its joined up approach to veteran welfare help to distinguish the US response to veteran homelessness internationally.Wilding, Mark. (2020). [https://www.feantsaresearch.org/public/user/Observatory/2020/EJH/EJH_14_1-RN3-Web%5B1%5D.pdf The Challenges of Measuring Homelessness among Armed Forces Veterans: Service Provider Experiences in England] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713205722/https://www.feantsaresearch.org/public/user/Observatory/2020/EJH/EJH_14_1-RN3-Web%5B1%5D.pdf |date=July 13, 2020 }}, European Journal of Homelessness, 14(1): 107-122.

{{further|Youth homelessness}}

File:Homeless children in US 2006-10.png |access-date = April 15, 2015 |archive-date = March 27, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220327082254/https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2011/1213/Homeless-children-at-record-high-in-US.-Can-the-trend-be-reversed |url-status = live }} 2012,[http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/pages/state-of-the-homeless-2012 "State of the Homeless 2012"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522104617/http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/pages/state-of-the-homeless-2012 |date=May 22, 2014 }} Coalition for the Homeless, June 8, 2012. and 2013{{cite news |author = Petula Dvorak |date = February 8, 2013 |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/600-homeless-children-in-dc-and-no-one-seems-to-care/2013/02/08/a728a0ea-722b-11e2-8b8d-e0b59a1b8e2a_story.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130212092459/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-02-08/local/36993838_1_homeless-kids-bus-shelters-homeless-children |url-status = live |archive-date = February 12, 2013 |title = 600 homeless children in D.C., and no one seems to care |newspaper = Washington Post |access-date = April 15, 2015 }} at about three times their number in 1983.{{update inline|date=August 2020}}]]

The number of homeless children in the US grew from 1.2 million in 2007 to 1.6 million in 2010. The US defines homelessness as "individuals who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence," per the 1987 McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act.Bassuk, E.L., et al. (2011) [http://www.homelesschildrenamerica.org/media/NCFH_AmericaOutcast2010_web.pdf America's Youngest Outcasts: 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322192547/http://www.homelesschildrenamerica.org/media/NCFH_AmericaOutcast2010_web.pdf |date=March 22, 2016 }} (Needham, MA: The National Center on Family Homelessness) page 20 The number of homeless children reached record highs in 2011, 2012, and 2013 at about three times their number in 1983. In 2010, a study found that an "estimated two million [youth] run away from or are forced out of their homes each year" in the United States.{{harvp|Flowers|2010|p=1}}

In 2009, one out of 50 children or 1.5 million children in United States of America was homeless each year. In 2013, that number jumped to one out of 30 children, or 2.5 million.David Crary and Lisa Leff (November 17, 2014). [https://www.yahoo.com/parenting/new-report-child-homelessness-on-the-rise-in-u-s-102965717042.html New Report: Child Homelessness on the Rise in US] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305141825/https://www.yahoo.com/parenting/new-report-child-homelessness-on-the-rise-in-u-s-102965717042.html |date=March 5, 2016 }}. The Associated Press. Retrieved November 22, 2014.

Texas, California and Florida have the highest numbers of unaccompanied homeless youth under the age of 18; comprising 58% of the total homeless under 18 youth population.

Street children in the United States tend to stay in the state. 83% do not leave their state of origin.{{harvp|Flowers|2010|p=53}} If they leave, street children are likely to end up in large cities, notably New York City; Los Angeles; Portland, Oregon; and San Francisco.{{harvp|Flowers|2010|p=55}} In 2010, street children were predominantly Caucasian and female in the United States, and 42% identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT).{{harvp|Flowers|2010|p=48}}

The United States government has been making efforts since the late 1970s to accommodate this section of the population.{{cite book |last1 = Fernandes-Alcantara |first1 = Adrienne L. |title = Runaway and Homeless Youth: Demographics and Programs |date = April 26, 2018 |publisher = Congressional Research Service |location = Washington, DC |url = https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33785.pdf |access-date = May 9, 2018 |archive-date = June 5, 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180605230414/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33785.pdf |url-status = live }} The Runaway and Homeless Youth Act of 1978 made funding available for shelters and funded the National Runaway Switchboard. Other efforts include the Child Abuse and Treatment Act of 1974, the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, and the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act.{{harvp|Flowers|2010|p=161}} There has been a decline of arrest rates in street youth, dropping in 30,000 arrests from 1998 to 2007. Instead, the authorities are referring homeless youth to state-run social service agencies.{{harvp|Flowers|2010|p=65}}

In 2020, the National Center for homeless Education reported that in the U.S. public education system, over 1.5 million students experienced homelessness during their 2017 and 2018 school year.{{cite news |last = Garrand |first = Danielle |date = February 4, 2020 |title = There are more homeless students in the U.S. than people living in Dallas |url = https://www.cbsnews.com/news/homeless-population-there-are-more-homeless-students-in-the-u-s-than-people-living-in-dallas-2020-02-04/ |work = CBS News |access-date = February 8, 2020 |archive-date = February 7, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200207161902/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/homeless-population-there-are-more-homeless-students-in-the-u-s-than-people-living-in-dallas-2020-02-04/ |url-status = live }}

According to the data, between 2023 and 2024, children under 18 see a 33% increase in homelessness, with 150,000 children experiencing this crisis.{{cite news |last=Waldmeir |first=Patti |date=February 10, 2025 |title=The growing problem of child homelessness in the US|url=https://www.ft.com/content/c95893f4-1d7c-473a-a5fe-17b49acd56f1|work=Financial Times |location= |publisher= |access-date=February 13, 2025}}

{{Main|Homelessness among LGBT youth in the United States}}

According to the Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey, one in four teens that participated in this survey who identify as gay or lesbian are homeless. Various sources report between 20 percent and 40 percent identify as LGBT. 2015 research shows that a disproportionate number of homeless youth in the United States identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender, or LGBT.Judge, Caitlin "Casey" (2015) "Thrown Away for Being Gay: The Abandonment of LGBT Youth and Their Lack of Legal Recourse," Indiana Journal of Law and Social Equality: Vol. 3 : Iss. 2, Article 5.

Available at: https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijlse/vol3/iss2/5 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823023149/https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijlse/vol3/iss2/5/ |date=August 23, 2019 }}

File:Whoville Homeless Camp (Eugene, Oregon).jpg, 2013]]

The topic of homeless families first emerged in the United States during the 1980s, when social welfare programs were being cut and high rates of income inequality, child poverty, and the lack of affordable housing were becoming an issue. The issue of homeless families came back in 2009 after the Recession, which replicated the same issues from the 80s.{{Cite journal |last = Grant |first = Roy |title = Twenty-Five Years of Child and Family Homelessness: Where Are We Now? |journal = American Journal of Public Health |volume = 103 |pages = e1–10 |pmc = 3969115 |pmid = 24148055 |doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2013.301618 |year = 2013 |issue = Suppl 2 }} The 2000s saw a new population of those experiencing homelessness: families with children. While an emerging problem at the beginning of the decade,{{cite web |title=FACS {{pipe}} Homeless Children, Poverty, Faith and Community: Understanding and Reporting the Local Story |date=March 26, 2002 |location=Akron, Ohio |url=http://www.facsnet.org/edu/progs/family_03-26-02.php3 |publisher=Facsnet.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928072235/http://www.facsnet.org/edu/progs/family_03-26-02.php3 |archive-date=September 28, 2007 }} the problem continued to persist to 2010.

At the close of the decade the trend continued, with the number of individuals in homeless families increasing from 431,541 in 2007 to 535,447 in 2009. Though the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) conducts an annual Point-in-Time count of homeless people, including homeless families, its methodology has been criticized for under-reporting the number of homeless families. HUD reported that the number of homeless families decreased by 2% from 2017 to 2018, and by 23% from 2007 to 2018. However, 85% of local services for homeless people reported an increase during the same time. While HUD reported 111,592 homeless minors in 2018, the United States Department of Education reported 1.3 million homeless minors in the 2016 – 2017 school year.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094256 |title = Resetting Policies to End Family Homelessness |year = 2020 |last1 = Bassuk |first1 = Ellen L. |last2 = Hart |first2 = Jacqueline A. |last3 = Donovan |first3 = Effy |journal = Annual Review of Public Health |volume = 41 |pages = 247–263 |pmid = 31675480 |doi-access = free }}

In 2019, the state of New York had the greatest number of homeless families, at 15,901. California had the second-greatest number of homeless families, at 7,044, followed by Massachusetts at 3,766. Wyoming had the fewest, at 37.{{cite web |url = https://www.usich.gov/tools-for-action/map/#fn |title = Total Family Households Experiencing Homelessness |access-date = June 10, 2020 |website = United States Interagency Council on Homelessness |archive-date = June 10, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200610152420/https://www.usich.gov/tools-for-action/map/#fn |url-status = live }}

In 2024, the percentage of families with children experiencing homelessness increased by 39%.

{{See also|Homeless women in the United States}}File:New York May 2015 (17641499684).jpg

A 2007 study discovered that the three biggest risk factors that contributed to family homelessness in the United States are: ethnicity, lack of resources (specifically funds), and young children/pregnancy.{{Cite journal |last = Buckner |first = John |title = Homeless Families and Children |url = https://www.huduser.gov/Publications/pdf/homeless_symp_07.pdf#page=197 |journal = Toward Understanding Homelessness: The 2007 National Symposium on Homelessness Research |access-date = December 5, 2017 |archive-date = April 30, 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180430035633/https://www.huduser.gov/Publications/pdf/homeless_symp_07.pdf#page=197 |url-status = live }} There is a strong correlation between homeless families and households run and financed by a single female, especially one from a minority group and with at least two children. Single-income families, especially those below the federal poverty line, have a harder time finding housing than other families, especially given the limited affordable housing options.{{Cite journal |last = Nooe |first = Roger |s2cid = 68809897 |title = Life Experiences and Vulnerabilities of Homeless Women: A Comparison of Women Unaccompanied Versus Accompanied by Minor Children, and Correlates With Children's Emotional Distress |journal = Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless |volume = 11 |issue = 3 |pages = 215–231 |doi = 10.1023/A:1015741613230 |year = 2016 }}

Homeless families do not always take refuge in shelters, but being homeless also does not necessarily mean living on the streets. Homeless women with children are more likely to live with family or friends than those without children, and this group is treated with higher priority by both the government and society. In 2020, homeless mothers had a much higher prevalence of depression, at 40 to 85%, compared to 12% in women of all socioeconomic groups. Homeless mothers have higher rates of substance use, anxiety disorders, and PTSD. Nearly all of them (92%) experience physical or sexual abuse.

File:Different-types.svg

In 2017, about 85,000 chronically homeless people were sleeping on the streets or in shelters.United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (2017). Ending chronic homelessness in 2017. Retrieved from https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/Ending_Chronic_Homelessness_in_2017.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830190630/https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/Ending_Chronic_Homelessness_in_2017.pdf |date=August 30, 2019 }} A chronically homeless individual is defined as an unaccompanied person who has been homeless for a consecutive year, or four or more periods of homelessness within the last three years, with a disability preventing them from working.United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (2010). Supplemental document to the federal strategic plan to prevent and end homelessness: June 2010. Retrieved from https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/BkgrdPap_ChronicHomelessness.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804051447/https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/BkgrdPap_ChronicHomelessness.pdf |date=August 4, 2019 }} This definition was expanded in 2009 due to the HEARTH act, to include families who were experiencing prolonged or repeating homelessness due to a disabled parent. A 2017 study found that leaving these individuals to remain on the streets can cost taxpayers up to $50,000 per year for a single chronically homeless individual, by them cycling in and out of treatment facilities, jails, hospitals and other institutional care facilities. Since 2007, the number of chronically homeless individuals has decreased by 33%, with Utah reporting to have achieved an end to chronic homelessness.

An episodic homeless person is someone that has experienced three instances of homelessness within a given year. After four instances within a year, they are classified as chronically homeless. Episodic homelessness usually afflicts younger people that are fighting health issues or addiction.

Transitional homelessness is a type of homelessness that's a result of a major life change or catastrophic event.{{cite web |title = Here are 10 New Facts About Sheltered Homelessness in America |url = https://endhomelessness.org/here-are-10-new-facts-about-sheltered-homelessness-in-america/ |website = National Alliance to End Homelessness |access-date = March 21, 2020 |date = November 10, 2015 |archive-date = April 8, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200408211231/https://endhomelessness.org/here-are-10-new-facts-about-sheltered-homelessness-in-america/ |url-status = live }} Those life events could include losing a job, a medical condition, divorce, domestic abuse, and more. It is likely that people experiencing episodic homelessness are young, and end up staying in shelters for a brief period.

Hidden homelessness goes unreported and undocumented. Individuals who are classified as such are temporarily living with others with no guarantees for the long term.{{Cite web|url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/The-State-of-Homelessness-in-America.pdf|title=White House|access-date=March 1, 2021|archive-date=January 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120204713/https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/The-State-of-Homelessness-in-America.pdf|url-status=live}}

The community of homeless people in the United States is aided by governmental and non-governmental organizations. According to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, in 2017, the number of people experiencing homelessness in unsheltered locations increased for a second straight year by 9% between 2016 and 2017.{{cite web |title = The 2017 annual homeless assessment report to congress part 1: Point-in-time estimates of homelessness |url = https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2017-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |access-date = February 28, 2018 |archive-date = December 9, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201209214652/https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2017-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |url-status = live }} This issue is partly caused by a lack of affordable housing and is exacerbated by the criminalization of behaviors associated with homelessness. This problem is also costly for the country in supporting these individuals. Multiple studies have demonstrated success in reducing the homeless population as well as its harmful financial and societal effects by providing these individuals with a combination of housing without preconditions and supportive care. These studies include the 2014 Housing first implementation of the Department of Veterans Affairs National Center on Homelessness Among Veterans{{cite web |title = Housing first implementation brief |url = https://www.va.gov/homeless/nchav/docs/Housing-First-Implementation-brief.pdf |access-date = November 23, 2018 |archive-date = April 12, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190412095312/https://www.va.gov/homeless/nchav/docs/Housing-First-Implementation-brief.pdf |url-status = live }} and a study performed through Brown University.{{cite journal |title = Housing first as an effective model for community stabilization among vulnerable individuals with chronic and nonchronic homelessness histories |journal = Journal of Community Psychology |date = 2016 |volume = 44 |issue = 3 |pages = 384–390 |doi = 10.1002/jcop.21763 |last1 = Brown |first1 = Molly M. |last2 = Jason |first2 = Leonard A. |last3 = Malone |first3 = Daniel K. |last4 = Srebnik |first4 = Debra |last5 = Sylla |first5 = Laurie }}

Many homeless people in the United States work, both part-time and full-time.{{Cite journal |last1=Shier |first1=Micheal L. |last2=Jones |first2=Marion E. |last3=Graham |first3=John R. |date=January 1, 2012 |title=Employment Difficulties Experienced by Employed Homeless People: Labor Market Factors That Contribute to and Maintain Homelessness |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10875549.2012.640522 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Poverty |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=27–47 |doi=10.1080/10875549.2012.640522 |issn=1087-5549 |s2cid=154443799 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222153550/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10875549.2012.640522 |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |access-date=October 22, 2022|url-access=subscription }} Employment opportunities can be useful in providing financial stability to homeless individuals. Estimates of unemployment within the homeless population range from 57% to 90%.{{Cite journal |last1=Shaheen |first1=Gary |last2=Rio |first2=John |date=July 1, 2007 |title=Recognizing Work as a Priority in Preventing or Ending Homelessness |journal=The Journal of Primary Prevention |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–358 |doi=10.1007/s10935-007-0097-5 |issn=1573-6547 |pmid=17564838 |s2cid=20167548 |doi-access=free}} Programs seeking to help homeless people find and maintain jobs usually focus on individual characteristics of homeless people as barriers, such as addiction and mental illness.{{Cite journal |last1=Poremski |first1=Daniel |last2=Woodhall-Melnik |first2=Julia |last3=Lemieux |first3=Ashley J. |last4=Stergiopoulos |first4=Vicky |date=February 1, 2016 |title=Persisting Barriers to Employment for Recently Housed Adults with Mental Illness Who Were Homeless |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-0012-y |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Urban Health |language=en |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=96–108 |doi=10.1007/s11524-015-0012-y |issn=1468-2869 |pmc=4794459 |pmid=26666250 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222153603/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11524-015-0012-y |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |access-date=March 15, 2022}}{{Cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=Kristin M. |last2=Bender |first2=Kimberly |last3=Thompson |first3=Sanna J. |last4=Maccio |first4=Elaine M. |last5=Pollio |first5=David |date=April 8, 2011 |title=Employment Status and Income Generation Among Homeless Young Adults |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x11402851 |journal=Youth & Society |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=385–407 |doi=10.1177/0044118x11402851 |issn=0044-118X |s2cid=144438463|url-access=subscription }}

Research indicates that there are systemic factors that exclude homeless people from the work force, such as expectations, and the overall structure of the labor market. The rise of temporary employment in the modern labor market has made homeless people unable to secure stable employment and income, to ensure their ability to afford and maintain a house.

Homelessness is a public welfare and health epidemic within the United States. Any period of homelessness is associated with adverse health consequences.{{cite journal |last1=Fusaro |first1=Levy |year=2018 |title=Racial and Ethnic Disparities |journal=Demography |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=2119–2128 |doi=10.1007/s13524-018-0717-0 |pmc=7665902 |pmid=30242661 |s2cid=52315072}} These adverse health consequences are associated with poor living conditions and a lack of access to treatment facilities. Due to living in extreme poverty, it is unlikely for an individual or a family to have a healthcare plan. These healthcare plans are important in obtaining treatment for illnesses or injury from treatment facilities. Without it, individuals and families are left to deal with their ailments themselves or endure further financial burden by receiving treatments without a health insurance plan.

Respiratory infections and outbreaks of tuberculosis and other aerosol transmitted infections have been reported. Homeless intravenous drug users are at an increased risk of contracting HIV, and hepatitis B and C infections.{{cite journal |author1=Roy, L. |author2=Crocker, A. G. |author3=Nicholls, T. L |year=2014 |title=Criminal Behavior and Victimization Among Homeless |journal=Psychiatr Serv |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=739–50 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.201200515 |pmid=24535245 |s2cid=26616742}}

The close living spaces of areas such as Skid Row in California provide an environment in which infectious diseases can spread easily. These areas with a high concentration of homeless individuals are dirty environments, with little resources for personal hygiene. A 2018 report to congress estimated that 35% of homeless people were in unsheltered locations not suitable for human habitation.{{cite web |author1=Henry, M. |author2=Morrill, T. |title=The 2018 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress |url=https://files.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2018-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330124757/https://files.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2018-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |archive-date=March 30, 2020 |access-date=May 30, 2019 |website=HUD Exchange}}

There is a bidirectional relationship between homelessness and poor health.{{cite journal |last1=Lippert |first1=Adam M. |last2=Lee |first2=Barrett A. |year=2015 |title=Stress, Coping, and Mental Health Differences among Homeless People |journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=343–374 |doi=10.1111/soin.12080}} Homelessness exacts a heavy toll on individuals. The longer individuals experience homelessness, the more likely they are to experience poor health and be at higher risk for premature death.{{cite report |title=Homelessness in California |date=2001 |vauthors=Quigley JM, etal |work=Public Policy Institute of California |s2cid=153541613}} Health conditions, such as substance use and mental illness, can increase people's susceptibility to homelessness. Conversely, homelessness can cause further health issues, due to constant exposure to environmental threats such as violence and communicable diseases. Homeless people have disproportionately high rates of poly substance use, mental illness, physical health problems and legal issues/barriers in attaining employment.{{cite book |last=Fitzpatrick |first=Kevin Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 |title=Poverty and Health: A Crisis Among America's Most Vulnerable [2 volumes]: A Crisis among America's Most Vulnerable |date=2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-0264-5 |page=165 |access-date=February 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222152935/https://books.google.com/books?id=MazWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |url-status=live}}

A 2000 study found that large numbers of homeless people work, but few homeless people are able to generate significant earnings from employment alone.{{cite journal |last1=Zuvekas |first1=Samuel H. |last2=Hill |first2=Steven C. |year=2000 |title=Income and employment among homeless people: the role of mental health, health and substance abuse |journal=The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=153–163 |citeseerx=10.1.1.490.6983 |doi=10.1002/mhp.94 |pmid=11967451}} Physical health problems limit work and daily activities, which are barriers to employment. Substance use is positively associated with a lower work level, and negatively related to a higher work level.{{cite web |title=Baggett, Travis P, and Darlene M Jenkins. "Chapter 6." Poverty and Health: A Crisis among America's Most Vulnerable, vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, LLC |url=https://www.nhchc.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/baggett-jenkins-chp-6-homelessness-health-poverty-health-vol-1-praeger-2013.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006062147/https://www.nhchc.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/baggett-jenkins-chp-6-homelessness-health-poverty-health-vol-1-praeger-2013.pdf |archive-date=October 6, 2017 |access-date=October 5, 2017}} Those with physical health problems are substantially more likely than those with mental health problems to be in the more generous disability programs. Substance use disorders are a barrier to participation in disability programs. A 2015 study found that rates of participation in government programs are low, and that people with major mental disorders have a low participation rate in disability programs.{{cite web |title=Affordable housing, homelessness, and mental health: What health care policy needs to address. - Free Online Library |url=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Affordable+housing,+homelessness,+and+mental+health:+What+heath+care+...-a0420325578 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032310/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Affordable+housing,+homelessness,+and+mental+health:+What+heath+care+...-a0420325578 |archive-date=September 7, 2018 |access-date=September 6, 2018 |website=thefreelibrary.com}}

US homeless deaths surged 77% from 2016 to 2020. A February 2022 analysis in The Guardian found that some 18,000 homeless people died on the streets and in encampments and shelters over a five year period, with 5,000 of these deaths occurring in 2020. The non-profit National Health Care for the Homeless Council places homeless deaths at between 17,000 and 40,000 annually. Many are never counted, given that the federal government does not track homeless deaths nationally.

The top direct causes of death among the homeless population include "drug overdoses, violence, traffic deaths and premature lethality of treatable conditions like heart disease." Regarding drug deaths, methamphetamine is a significant killer, as people who are homeless use the stimulant drug to stay awake and alert in order to protect themselves from violence. The report notes that outside of direct medical causes of death, a major factor contributing to both the epidemic of homelessness and surge in deaths among the homeless population is the lack of affordable housing throughout much of the country.

A 2023 report found that Homelessness among the elderly has been increasing.{{cite news |last=Grabenstein |first=Hannah |date=March 3, 2023 |title=More seniors are becoming homeless, and experts say the trend is likely to worsen |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/more-seniors-are-becoming-homeless-and-experts-say-the-trend-is-likely-to-worsen |access-date=June 16, 2023 |work=PBS |location= |quote=There's no single reason for the rise in the older homeless population. Weak social safety nets, mass incarceration policies and an insufficient supply of affordable housing are among the many factors}} A 2002 report by the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health found that homeless persons die at greater rates than the general public from specific causes.{{cite news |last1=Fuller |first1=Thomas |date=April 18, 2022 |title=A Rising Tally of Lonely Deaths on the Streets |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/18/us/homeless-deaths-los-angeles.html |newspaper=The New York Times |quote=A study by the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health found that homeless people are 35 times as likely as the general population to die of a drug or alcohol overdose. They are also four times as likely to die of heart disease, 16 times as likely to die in a car crash, 14 times as likely to be murdered and eight times as likely to die of suicide.}} They are more likely to die by: 35 times from alcohol or drug overdoses, 16 times from auto accidents, 14 times from murder, 8 times from suicide, and 4 times from heart disease. September 2023 HUD data found that the elderly are the fastest growing demographic of the homeless population.{{cite news |last=Louis |first=Serah |date=September 23, 2023 |title='Unconscionable': Baby boomers are becoming homeless at a rate 'not seen since the Great Depression' — here's what's driving this terrible trend |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/unconscionable-baby-boomers-becoming-homeless-103000310.html |access-date=September 23, 2023 |work=Yahoo! Finance |location= |quote=Thanks in part to a series of recessions, high housing costs and a shortage of affordable housing, older adults are now the fastest-growing segment of America's homeless population, according to a report in the Wall Street Journal, based on data from the Department of Housing and Urban Development.}}

In 2023, Judge Milan Smith Jr., an American jurist claimed that homelessness is "presently the defining public health and safety crisis in the western United States."{{cite web |last1=Rector |first1=Kevin |date=July 6, 2023 |title=9th Circuit conservatives blast homelessness ruling, say issue is 'paralyzing' U.S. West |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2023-07-06/in-scathing-dissents-9th-circuit-conservatives-say-homelessness-is-paralyzing-u-s-west |access-date=9 July 2023 |newspaper=The Los Angeles Times}} According to 2023 Los Angeles homeless services authority data, on average, six unhoused people die in Los Angeles each day. The causes reported of death are overdoses, heart disease, traffic accidents, homicides, hypothermia, and heat exhaustion. Va Lecia Adams Kellum, Lahsa's CEO, believes "The primary causes of homelessness are economic."

Comprehensive healthcare usually refers to a form of medical care that meets a patient's whole needs through the provision of a wide range of health services.{{Cite journal |last1=Haggerty |first1=Jeannie L. |last2=Beaulieu |first2=Marie-Dominique |last3=Pineault |first3=Raynald |last4=Burge |first4=Frederick |last5=Lévesque |first5=Jean-Frédéric |last6=Santor |first6=Darcy A. |last7=Bouharaoui |first7=Fatima |last8=Beaulieu |first8=Christine |date=December 2011 |title=Comprehensiveness of Care from the Patient Perspective: Comparison of Primary Healthcare Evaluation Instruments |journal=Healthcare Policy |volume=7 |issue=Spec Issue |pages=154–166 |issn=1715-6572 |pmc=3399439 |pmid=23205042}} This form of holistic care in relation to homeless people is often difficult for them to access, due to issues of location, stigma, etc, and difficult for care givers to perform and manage, as a result of the unpredictability of homeless people day to day.{{Cite journal |last1=Baggett |first1=Travis P. |last2=O'Connell |first2=James J. |last3=Singer |first3=Daniel E. |last4=Rigotti |first4=Nancy A. |date=July 1, 2010 |title=The Unmet Health Care Needs of Homeless Adults: A National Study |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=1326–1333 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2009.180109 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=2882397 |pmid=20466953}}

As high-risk and socially disadvantaged persons, homeless patients tend to require a lot of acute care, of short term but active treatment, with poor results. Due to the conditions homelessness creates, acute care and health is difficult to manage and maintain.{{Cite book |last=People |first=Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Care for Homeless |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218235/ |title=Health Care Services for Homeless People |date=1988 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |language=en |access-date=November 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127022325/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218235/ |archive-date=November 27, 2022 |url-status=live}} The Tailored Care approach recognizes the situation of homeless people and seeks to provide specialized care to the homeless community. Studies have found that the tailored approach is good at engaging homeless persons seeking health care for the first time.{{Cite journal |last=O’Toole |first=Thomas P. |date=2016 |title=Tailoring Care to Vulnerable Populations by Incorporating Social Determinants of Health: the Veterans Health Administration's "Homeless Patient Aligned Care Team" Program |url=https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2016/15_0567.htm |url-status=live |journal=Preventing Chronic Disease |language=en-us |volume=13 |pages=E44 |doi=10.5888/pcd13.150567 |issn=1545-1151 |pmc=4825747 |pmid=27032987 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024152753/https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2016/15_0567.htm |archive-date=October 24, 2022 |access-date=October 24, 2022}} These health care facilities position themselves in homeless shelters or in areas easily accessible to the homeless population. Some of these health care providers also provide meal kits, on-site showers, transportation, and hygiene kits. This form of holistic and tailored care leads to the reduction in emergency service use, and hospitalizations amongst the homeless community.

This approach has been used in the government-sponsored Health Care for the Homeless Model (HCH Model). Each HCH project is federally funded, and works as federally qualified health centers that work at the intersection of multiple disciplines. These health centers usually provide their patients access to health services such as primary care, mental health services, and addiction services, as well as social services such as after-jail services and case management. There is no set structure that each health center needs to follow—each health center has the agency to provide a variety of services based on their networks and connections with the local neighborhood, government, or community, but are not mandated to do so except for providing primary care.

For children, there are risks to seeking refuge in shelters, which are heightened and more noticeable for children. Children's homelessness health risks include malnutrition from lack of access to food with nutritional content, behavioral problems associated with coping, social insecurity from growing up in an unstable environment, and mental illnesses such as PTSD and trauma.{{Cite journal |last=Hernandez |first=Debra |title=Services to Homeless Students and Families: The McKinney-Vento Act and Its Implications for School Social Work Practice |url=https://academic.oup.com/cs/article/28/1/37/423786 |url-status=live |journal=Children & Schools |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118104146/https://academic.oup.com/cs/article/28/1/37/423786 |archive-date=November 18, 2019 |access-date=December 5, 2017}}

Just as children who come from homeless families are at a higher risk of developing behavioral, mental, and physical health problems than their peers, their mothers are also at a higher risk especially in developing mental illnesses.{{Cite journal |last=Gültekin |first=Laura |year=2014 |title=Voices From the Street: Exploring the Realities of Family Homelessness |journal=Journal of Family Nursing |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=390–414 |doi=10.1177/1074840714548943 |pmc=4422334 |pmid=25186947}} There are many things that contribute to why homeless women are at a higher rate of developing a mental illness compared to the general population, but there has been a reoccurring theme among studies focused on this issue.{{Cite journal |last=Swick |first=Kevin |year=2004 |title=The Dynamics of Families who are Homeless. Implications for Early Childhood Educators |journal=Childhood Education |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=116–121 |citeseerx=10.1.1.604.7247 |doi=10.1080/00094056.2004.10522786 |s2cid=146556848}}

{{See also|Homelessness and mental health#United States}}

In 2006, homeless individuals reported mental illness as being the number three reason for becoming or staying homeless. Such illnesses are often closely linked with the fourth reason—substance use—and therefore it is generally accepted that both of these issues should be treated simultaneously.{{Cite web |date=May 6, 2008 |title=Homeless Mentally Ill Persons: A bibliography review |url=http://www.psychosocial.com/IJPR_12/Homeless_Mentally_Ill_Nieto.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506130241/http://www.psychosocial.com/IJPR_12/Homeless_Mentally_Ill_Nieto.html |archive-date=May 6, 2008 |access-date=October 24, 2022}} Although many medical, psychiatric, and counseling services exist to address these needs, it is commonly believed that without the support of reliable and stable housing, such treatments remain ineffective. In the absence of a universal healthcare plan, many of those in need cannot afford such services.

A 2020 representative sample of homeless youth across multiple US cities found that, in each city, more than 80% of the sampled individuals met criteria for at least one psychiatric diagnosis.{{Cite journal |last1=Winiarski |first1=Dominika A. |last2=Rufa |first2=Anne K. |last3=Bounds |first3=Dawn T. |last4=Glover |first4=Angela C. |last5=Hill |first5=Kristin A. |last6=Karnik |first6=Niranjan S. |date=February 11, 2020 |title=Assessing and treating complex mental health needs among homeless youth in a shelter-based clinic |journal=BMC Health Services Research |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=109 |doi=10.1186/s12913-020-4953-9 |issn=1472-6963 |pmc=7014693 |pmid=32046711 |doi-access=free}} A 2020 Epidemiological study found that only about 25–30% of homeless persons have a severe mental illness such as schizophrenia.{{Cite journal |last=Padgett |first=Deborah K. |year=2020 |title=Homelessness, housing instability and mental health: making the connections |journal=BJPsych Bulletin |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=197–201 |doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.49 |issn=2056-4694 |pmc=7525583 |pmid=32538335}} Early studies, comparing homeless persons found that depression and suicidal thoughts were very prevalent, along with symptoms of trauma and substance abuse.

In 2004, the downtown partnership in Nashville, Tennessee, conducted a census on businesses. Sixty percent of respondents identified that public inebriates, transients and vagrants affect their employees, clients and customers. Businesses were solicited to identify issues that need to be addressed; transients and panhandlers ranked amongst the top five issues.{{Cite news |date = April 5, 2004 |title = Downtown census shows 43,000 workers; parking, transients biggest concerns |work = Nashville Business Journal |url = https://www.bizjournals.com/nashville/stories/2004/04/05/daily7.html |access-date = May 20, 2019 |quote = On the negative side, 60 percent also said that public inebriates, transients and vagrants affect their employees, clients and customers. |archive-date = March 8, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210308140148/https://www.bizjournals.com/nashville/stories/2004/04/05/daily7.html |url-status = live }}

In 2019, two 7-Eleven locations — one in Sacramento, California, and one in Portland, Oregon — briefly employed a high-pitched noise maker to repel panhandlers and vagrants.{{Cite news |last = Niemietz |first = Brian |date = January 31, 2019 |title = Shoppers divided over a 7-Eleven that keeps homeless people away with high-pitched sounds |work = New York Daily News |url = https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/ny-news-711-7-11-711-homeless-buzz-buzzing-sound-20190131-story.html |access-date = May 20, 2019 |archive-date = February 5, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190205045700/https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/ny-news-711-7-11-711-homeless-buzz-buzzing-sound-20190131-story.html |url-status = live }} In Portland, a local news source (750 KXL) described the sidewalk in front of the Downtown Portland 7-Eleven as being transformed from "barely walkable" to clean and orderly for the first time in years, after the repelling device was installed by the building's owner, Standard Insurance Company. The manager of the 7-Eleven told reporters he would see as many as a dozen transients simultaneously loitering in front of his store,{{Cite web |last = Haas |first = Elise |date = January 31, 2019 |title = Homeless deterrent? 7-Eleven using high-pitched noise |url = https://www.koin.com/news/local/multnomah-county/homeless-deterrent-7-eleven-using-high-pitched-noise/1742575476 |access-date = May 20, 2019 |website = KOIN |language = en-US |archive-date = February 1, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190201024755/https://www.koin.com/news/local/multnomah-county/homeless-deterrent-7-eleven-using-high-pitched-noise/1742575476 |url-status = live }} and that this loitering adversely affected his business. The building's owner issued a statement that the goal was to protect the "safety of their employees, tenants, and guests in a location that has been consistently plagued by public drug use and menacing behavior."{{Cite web |last = Dean |first = Jacob |date = January 31, 2019 |title = Store Using Sound To Fight Homeless On Sidewalk |url = https://www.kxl.com/store-using-sound-to-fight-homeless-on-sidewalk/ |access-date = May 20, 2019 |website = FM News 101 KXL |archive-date = February 3, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190203111424/https://www.kxl.com/store-using-sound-to-fight-homeless-on-sidewalk/ |url-status = live }}

In 2019, a manager for a 7-Eleven in Modesto, California, also attested to the effectiveness of sound for deterring undesirable activity, commenting that "Once the music started, the riffraff left."{{Cite web |last = Gilmour |first = Jared |date = January 31, 2019 |title = High-pitched noise at Portland 7-Eleven was 'to keep homeless people away,' clerk says |url = https://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/nation-world/national/article225373390.html |website = Charlotte Observer |access-date = May 20, 2019 |archive-date = March 3, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190303033323/https://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/nation-world/national/article225373390.html |url-status = live }}

{{Main|List of homeless encampment sweeps in the United States}}

As of 2011, there were laws that both directly and indirectly criminalized people that are homeless.Barbara Ehrenreich (August 10, 2011) [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/aug/10/america-poverty-criminalised "How America criminalised poverty"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517025144/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/aug/10/america-poverty-criminalised |date=May 17, 2016 }} The Guardian As of 2012, some jurisdictions had made it illegal to attempt to feed homeless people outdoors.Baylen Linnekin (June 9, 2012) [http://reason.com/archives/2012/06/09/bans-on-feeding-homeless-have-always-bee "Bans on Feeding the Homeless Are Discriminatory and Unconstitutional"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430062718/http://reason.com/archives/2012/06/09/bans-on-feeding-homeless-have-always-bee |date=April 30, 2013 }} Reason.org As of 2014, at least 31 cities have criminalized feeding people that are homeless.Robbie Couch (November 3, 2014). [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/03/fort-lauderdale-feeding-homeless_n_6094234.html Fort Lauderdale Passes Law That Restricts Feeding Homeless People] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106172604/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/03/fort-lauderdale-feeding-homeless_n_6094234.html |date=November 6, 2014 }}. The Huffington Post. Retrieved November 9, 2014.Richard Luscombe (November 5, 2014). [https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/nov/05/fort-lauderdale-pastors-arnold-abbott-arrested-feeding-homeless 90-year-old among Florida activists arrested for feeding the homeless] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225043407/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/nov/05/fort-lauderdale-pastors-arnold-abbott-arrested-feeding-homeless |date=February 25, 2017 }}. The Guardian. Retrieved November 9, 2014.

In 2014, the United Nations Human Rights Committee criticized the United States for the criminalization of homelessness, noting that such "cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment" is in violation of international human rights treaty obligations.Ed Pilkington (March 13, 2014). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/13/us-un-human-rights-abuses-nsa-drones US criticised by UN for human rights failings on NSA, guns and drones] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001162611/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/13/us-un-human-rights-abuses-nsa-drones |date=October 1, 2019 }}. The Guardian. Retrieved April 5, 2014.Wilson Dizard (March 27, 2014). [http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/3/27/us-human-rights-reportun.html U.N. slams U.S. for torture, NSA spying.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330035149/http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/3/27/us-human-rights-reportun.html |date=March 30, 2014 }} Al Jazeera America. Retrieved April 6, 2014.[http://www.nlchp.org/U.N._Human_Rights_Committee_Calls_U.S._Criminalization_of_Homelessness_Cruel,_Inhuman,_and_Degrading.pdf U.N. Human Rights Committee Calls U.S. Criminalization of Homelessness "Cruel, Inhuman, and Degrading"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824224248/https://www.nlchp.org/U.N._Human_Rights_Committee_Calls_U.S._Criminalization_of_Homelessness_Cruel,_Inhuman,_and_Degrading.pdf|date=August 24, 2017}}. The National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, March 27, 2014. Retrieved May 12, 2014. A 2018 report by Philip Alston, the U.N. Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, found that homeless persons have effectively been criminalized in many cities around the United States, and noted that "punishing and imprisoning the poor is the distinctively American response to poverty in the twenty-first century."{{cite web |last = Alston |first = Philp |author-link = Philip Alston |date = May 4, 2018 |title = Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights on his mission to the United States of America |url = https://undocs.org/A/HRC/38/33/ADD.1 |access-date = May 12, 2020 |publisher = OHCHR |archive-date = May 13, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200513150254/https://undocs.org/A/HRC/38/33/ADD.1 |url-status = live }} As of 2023, both Missouri, Tennessee, and Texas have passed laws to ban homeless public camping by homeless people, often punishing such behavior with felony charges, with other states considering similar legislation.{{cite news |last=Abrams |first=Amanda |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jul/20/homeless-unhoused-houseless-term-history |title=Is it OK to use the word 'homeless' – or should you say 'unhoused'? |work=The Guardian |date=2023-07-20 |accessdate=2023-08-31 }}{{Cite news |url= https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/01/13/homelessness-us-more-tent-cities-banned/11024116002/ |work=USA Today |title= More cities and states make homeless encampments a crime, leaving low-income people with few options}}

As of 2024, some municipalities in the US make it a crime to provide food or shelter to homeless people.{{Cite news |work=HuffPo |url= https://www.huffpost.com/entry/dads-place-ohio-pastor-charged-homeless-guests_n_65a97da5e4b041f1ce654030 |title= Pastor Facing Criminal Charges After Giving Homeless People Shelter In Ohio Church}}{{Cite news |url= https://www.salon.com/2023/08/07/criminalizing-the-samaritan-why-cities-across-the-us-are-making-it-illegal-to-feed-the-homeless/ |work=Salon |title= "Criminalizing the Samaritan": Why cities across the US are making it illegal to feed the homeless}} Some local jurisdictions make it illegal for homeless people to use blankets or soap.{{Cite news |url= https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/the-supreme-court-will-decide-whether-local-anti-homeless-laws-are-cruel-and-unusual |work=PBS |title= The Supreme Court will decide whether local anti-homeless laws are 'cruel and unusual'}}{{Cite news |url= https://www.miamiherald.com/opinion/op-ed/article276324966.html |work=Miami Herald |title= Surfside's attempt to criminalize soap is latest attack on homeless people}}

In August 2012, a federal district judge in Philadelphia ruled that laws prohibiting serving food to homeless people outdoors were unconstitutional.Isaiah Thompson (August 16, 2012) [http://www.citypaper.net/columns/a_million_stories/2012-08-16-a-million-stories-nutter-decimation.html "City's homeless feeding ban takes a beating in judge's opinion"] City Paper {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612200622/http://www.citypaper.net/columns/a_million_stories/2012-08-16-a-million-stories-nutter-decimation.html|date=June 12, 2013}}

In June 2014, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit struck down a 1983 ordinance in the city of Los Angeles which "bans people from living in cars or recreational vehicles on city streets or in parking lots" as being unconstitutionally vague, saying "This broad and cryptic statute criminalizes innocent behavior, making it impossible for citizens to know how to keep their conduct within the pale. ... Unlike other cities, which ban overnight parking or sleeping in vehicles, Los Angeles' law prohibits using cars as 'living quarters' both overnight and 'day-by-day, or otherwise'."{{Cite news |last = Dolan |first = Maura |author2 = Maura Holland |date = June 19, 2014 |title = U.S. appeals court overturns L.A. ban on homeless living in vehicles |work = Los Angeles Times |url = http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-los-angeles-homeless-vehicle-ban-overturned-20140619-story.html#navtype=outfit |access-date = June 19, 2014 |archive-date = June 20, 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140620022557/http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-los-angeles-homeless-vehicle-ban-overturned-20140619-story.html#navtype=outfit |url-status = live }}

In 2015, homeless rights advocates were pushing for "Right to Rest" bills in several states, to overturn laws that target homeless people for sitting, eating, and sleeping in public places.Renee Lewis (February 24, 2015). [http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/2/24/Florida-police-homeless.html Slap by Florida cop highlights need for homeless rights, say advocates] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226210601/http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/2/24/Florida-police-homeless.html |date=February 26, 2015 }}. Al Jazeera America. Retrieved February 25, 2015.

In 2018, in Martin v. Boise the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that city ordinances banning sleeping outside cannot be enforced, if there are not enough shelter beds available in the city.{{cite news |last1 = Greenstone |first1 = Scott |date = September 6, 2019 |title = How a federal court ruling on Boise's homeless camping ban has rippled across the West |publisher = Idaho Statesman |url = https://www.idahostatesman.com/news/local/community/boise/article235065002.html |access-date = April 11, 2021 }}

In 2024, in Grants Pass v. Johnson the US Supreme Court ruled that cities may criminalize homelessness, as homelessness constitutes conduct, not status, and that the precedent set in Robinson v. California does not apply.{{cite news |date = June 28, 2024 |title = ACLU Responds to Supreme Court Decision that Cities Can Punish People for Being Homeless |publisher = ACLU |url = https://www.aclu.org/press-releases/aclu-responds-to-supreme-court-decision-that-cities-can-punish-people-for-being-homeless |access-date = June 28, 2024 }}

{{See also|Operation Rio Grande}}

Since the 1990s, there has been a growing number of violent acts committed upon people experiencing homelessness. The rate of such documented crimes in 2005 was 30% higher than of those in 1999.National Coalition for the Homeless: [http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/crimreport/report.pdf A Dream Denied] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027051219/http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/crimreport/report.pdf |date=October 27, 2019 }}. Some teens engage in this activity as a source of amusement.{{Cite web |date = May 16, 2007 |title = Teen 'sport killings' of homeless on the rise - CNN.com |url = http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/02/19/homeless.attacks/index.html |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070516130137/http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/02/19/homeless.attacks/index.html |archive-date = May 16, 2007 |access-date = May 12, 2020 |website = CNN }} CNN reported in 2007 that such incidents were on the rise.

In 2006, the Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism (CSHE) at California State University, San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that 155 homeless people were killed by non-homeless people in "hate killings", while 76 people were killed in all the other traditional hate crime homicide categories, such as race and religion, combined.National Coalition for the Homeless, [http://www.nationalhomeless.org/getinvolved/projects/hatecrimes/pressrelease.html Hate, "Violence, and Death on Main Street USA: A report on Hate Crimes and Violence Against People Experiencing Homelessness, 2006"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403051522/http://www.nationalhomeless.org/getinvolved/projects/hatecrimes/pressrelease.html|date=April 3, 2007}}, February 2007.

Studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than the non-homeless, but that most incidents never get reported to authorities. A 2007 study found that the number of violent crimes against homeless people is increasing.{{cite web |title = Archived copy |url = http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/P/PREYING_ON_THE_HOMELESS?SITE=WIJAN&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181010060835/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/P/PREYING_ON_THE_HOMELESS?SITE=WIJAN&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT |archive-date = October 10, 2018 |access-date = January 13, 2022 |website = hosted.ap.org }} In 2013, there were 109 attacks on homeless people, a 24 percent increase on the previous year, according to the NCH. Eighteen people died as a result of the attacks. In July 2014, three boys 15, 16 and 18, were arrested and charged with beating to death two homeless men with bricks and a metal pole in Albuquerque, New Mexico.{{cite news |title = Police arrest three teenagers for hammering homeless to death |publisher = Albuquerque News.Net |url = http://www.albuquerquenews.net/index.php/sid/224021037/scat/2fc3b2cae8166470/ht/Police-arrest-three-teenagers-for-hammering-homeless-to-death |url-status = dead |access-date = July 23, 2014 |archive-url = https://archive.today/20140726204331/http://www.albuquerquenews.net/index.php/sid/224021037/scat/2fc3b2cae8166470/ht/Police-arrest-three-teenagers-for-hammering-homeless-to-death |archive-date = July 26, 2014 }}

As in other countries, criminals—both individuals and organized groups—sometimes exploit homeless people, ranging from identity theft to tax and welfare scams.{{cite web |date = March 17, 2017 |title = Three Arrested in Medicaid Fraud Scheme Targeting Homeless |url = http://www.myfloridalegal.com/newsrel.nsf/newsreleases/678B3595D8234AE2852580E6005B1BC0 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171018012658/http://www.myfloridalegal.com/newsrel.nsf/newsreleases/678B3595D8234AE2852580E6005B1BC0 |archive-date = October 18, 2017 |access-date = October 17, 2017 |publisher = Attorney General Pam Bondi News Release }}{{cite web |author = Robyn Andrews |date = August 8, 2017 |title = Warning: Beware of Scams from Companies Claiming to Represent the FIHSH Conference – Please Read |url = http://fchonline.org/scam-alert/ |access-date = October 17, 2017 |publisher = Florida Coalition for the Homeless (FCH) |archive-date = October 18, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171018071133/http://fchonline.org/scam-alert/ |url-status = live }}{{cite journal |author = Kevin Wendolowski |year = 2014 |title = Fighting fraudsters who target homeless in scams |url = http://www.fraud-magazine.com/article.aspx?id=4294984602 |journal = Fraud Magazine |issue = September–October |access-date = October 17, 2017 |archive-date = October 18, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171018015523/http://www.fraud-magazine.com/article.aspx?id=4294984602 |url-status = live }} Homeless people, and homeless organizations, are also known to be accused or convicted of frauds and scams. These incidents often lead to negative impressions of homeless people by the general public.{{cite news |author = Nicholas Confessore |date = November 24, 2009 |title = Homeless Organization Is Called a Fraud |newspaper = The New York Times |url = https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/11/24/homeless-organization-called-fraud |access-date = October 17, 2017 |archive-date = October 26, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171026111928/https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/11/24/homeless-organization-called-fraud/ |url-status = live }}

Homeless advocates’ importance has been critical in producing humanizing narratives that challenge a traditional media representation of the homeless population. The surge of homeless advocates played a key role in forming the growing Housing First approach. Some scholars attribute the advocacy of Mitch Snyder, one of countless homeless advocates of the 80s, to meaningful federal change in approaches to homelessness during the Reagan era. This includes critical legislation for funding and coordinating aid for people experiencing homelessness, such as the formation of the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit program and the Stewart B. McKinney Homelessness Assistance Act, also known as the McKinney-Vento Homelessness Assistance Act. There is discourse that emphasizes the importance of creating policy solutions developed with and supported by individuals experiencing homelessness.{{Cite book |last=Eide |first=Stephen |url=https://doi.org/10.5771/9781538159583 |title=Homelessness in America |date=2022 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-5381-5958-3}}

In 2006, homeless individuals reported a lack of affordable housing as the number one reason for becoming homeless.City Mayors Society: [http://www.citymayors.com/features/uscity_poverty.html Big U.S. Cities Report Steep Rise in Hunger and Homelessness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109213308/http://www.citymayors.com/features/uscity_poverty.html|date=January 9, 2006}}.

The two main types of housing programs provided for homeless people are transitional and permanent housing. Transitional housing programs are operated with one goal in mind—to help individuals and families obtain permanent housing as quickly as possible. Transitional housing programs assist homeless for a fixed amount of time, or until they are able to obtain housing on their own and function successfully in the community, or whichever comes first.Burt, Martha R.,

[http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/411369_transitional_housing.pdf "Characteristics of Transitional Housing for Homeless Families Final Report"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409130947/http://urban.org/UploadedPDF/411369_transitional_housing.pdf|date=April 9, 2010}}, Urban Institute, Washington, D.C., September 7, 2006,{{cite journal |author=Dordick, Gwendolyn A. |date=March 2002 |title=Recovering from Homelessness: Determining the 'Quality of Sobriety' in a Transitional Housing Program |journal=Journal Qualitative Sociology |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=7–32 |doi=10.1023/A:1014331106267 |s2cid=141672718}}Karash, Robert L., [http://sparechangenews.net/news/graduate "The Graduate"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724080935/http://sparechangenews.net/news/graduate|date=July 24, 2011}}, Spare Change News, Boston, March 11, 2010

Some shelters and associated charitable foundations have bought buildings and real estate to develop into permanent housing for homeless people in lieu of transitional Housing.Kooker, Naomi R., [http://boston.bizjournals.com/boston/stories/2006/11/06/story4.html "Pine St. adds to permanent housing holdings"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226214121/http://boston.bizjournals.com/boston/stories/2006/11/06/story4.html|date=December 26, 2008}}, Boston Business Journal, November 3, 2006.

The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development and Veterans Administration have a special Section 8 housing voucher program called VASH (Veterans Administration Supported Housing), or HUD-VASH, which gives out a certain number of Section 8 subsidized housing vouchers to eligible homeless and otherwise vulnerable US armed forces veterans.{{cite web |author=VHA Office of Mental Health |title=The Department of Housing and Urban Development and VA's Supported Housing (HUD-VASH) Program |url=http://www1.va.gov/homeless/page.cfm?pg=53 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614223126/http://www.va.gov/homeless/page.cfm?pg=53 |archive-date=June 14, 2012 |access-date=June 19, 2012 |publisher=.va.gov |df=mdy-all}} The HUD-VASH program has been successful in housing many homeless veterans.{{cite journal |last=Tsai |first=Jack |author2=Rosenheck, Robert A. |date=November 2013 |title=Homeless veterans in supported housing: Exploring the impact of criminal history |journal=Psychological Services |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=452–8 |doi=10.1037/a0032775 |pmid=24079354}}

In 2018, the number of U.S. citizens residing in their vehicles because they cannot find affordable housing has "exploded", particularly in cities with steep increases in the cost of living such as Seattle, Los Angeles, Portland, and San Francisco.{{cite news |last=Berr |first=Johnathan |date=July 31, 2018 |title=More Americans are forced to "reside" in their vehicles |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-americans-are-living-in-their-vehicles-amid-high-housing-prices/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802070021/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/more-americans-are-living-in-their-vehicles-amid-high-housing-prices/ |archive-date=August 2, 2018 |access-date=August 2, 2018 |work=CBS MoneyWatch}}{{cite magazine |last=Quinn |first=Mattie |date=July 24, 2018 |title='It's the New Form of Affordable Housing': More People Are Living in Their Cars |url=http://www.governing.com/topics/health-human-services/gov-homeless-shelter-car.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105135750/http://www.governing.com/topics/health-human-services/gov-homeless-shelter-car.html |archive-date=January 5, 2019 |access-date=January 19, 2019 |magazine=Governing}} Bloomberg reported in November 2018 that the wealthiest cities in the U.S., in particular those in the Western states, are experiencing a homelessness crisis driven largely by stagnant wages and "skyrocketing rents".{{cite news |last1=Buhayar |first1=Noah |last2=Deprez |first2=Esmé E |date=November 20, 2018 |title=The Homeless Crisis Is Getting Worse in America's Richest Cities |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-11-20/the-homeless-crisis-is-getting-worse-in-america-s-richest-cities |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125073913/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-11-20/the-homeless-crisis-is-getting-worse-in-america-s-richest-cities |archive-date=November 25, 2018 |access-date=November 24, 2018 |work=Bloomberg}}

In 2019, Google pledged one billion USD into funding 20,000 homes over the next decade throughout the San Francisco Bay Area.{{cite web |last1=Nieva |first1=Richard |date=June 18, 2019 |title=Google pledges $1 billion toward Bay Area housing crisis |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/google-pledges-1-billion-toward-bay-area-housing-crisis/#ftag=COS-05-10aaa0j |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618195640/https://www.cnet.com/news/google-pledges-1-billion-toward-bay-area-housing-crisis/#ftag=COS-05-10aaa0j |archive-date=June 18, 2019 |access-date=June 19, 2019 |website=CNet}} The Bay Area is booming with economically successful people, who end up driving up the price of housing and increases the divide between the people who need the housing and the new houses being built.{{Cite book |last1=Burt |first1=Martha R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_XzWQEhRGgC&q=homeless+housing&pg=PA1 |title=Helping America's Homeless: Emergency Shelter Or Affordable Housing? |last2=Aron |first2=Laudan Y. |last3=Lee |first3=Edgar |date=2001 |publisher=The Urban Institute |isbn=9780877667018 |language=en |access-date=November 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222153127/https://books.google.com/books?id=8_XzWQEhRGgC&q=homeless+housing&pg=PA1 |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |url-status=live}} In particular, the metropolitan area of San Francisco has some of the most expensive real estate in the United States.{{cite web |last1=Zraick |first1=Karen |date=June 30, 2018 |title=San Francisco Is So Expensive, You Can Make Six Figures and Still Be 'Low Income' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/30/us/bay-area-housing-market.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190623000614/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/30/us/bay-area-housing-market.html |archive-date=June 23, 2019 |access-date=June 22, 2019 |website=The New York Times}}

Housing First is an evidence based approach, that recognizes housing as one of the most impactful social determinants of health that affect those experiencing homelessness.{{Cite journal |last=Clary |first=Amy |date=January 2017 |title=Federal and State Collaboration to Improve Health Through Housing |url=https://housingis.org/sites/default/files/NASHP%20Health-and-Housing-Brief.pdf |url-status=live |journal=National Academy for State Health Policy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801170807/https://housingis.org/sites/default/files/NASHP%20Health-and-Housing-Brief.pdf |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |access-date=May 14, 2020}}{{Cite journal |last1=Sandel |first1=Megan |last2=Desmond |first2=Matthew |date=December 19, 2017 |title=Investing in Housing for Health Improves Both Mission and Margin |journal=JAMA |language=en |volume=318 |issue=23 |pages=2291–2292 |doi=10.1001/jama.2017.15771 |issn=0098-7484 |pmid=29090312 |s2cid=43106924}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tsai |first1=Jack |last2=Gelberg |first2=Lillian |last3=Rosenheck |first3=Robert A. |date=September 2019 |title=Changes in Physical Health After Supported Housing: Results from the Collaborative Initiative to End Chronic Homelessness |journal=Journal of General Internal Medicine |language=en |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=1703–1708 |doi=10.1007/s11606-019-05070-y |issn=0884-8734 |pmc=6712193 |pmid=31161570}}{{Cite journal |last1=Balasuriya |first1=Lilanthi |last2=Dixon |first2=Lisa B. |date=May 1, 2021 |title=Homelessness and Mental Health: Part 2. The Impact of Housing Interventions |url=https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ps.72504 |journal=Psychiatric Services |volume=72 |issue=5 |pages=618–619 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.72504 |issn=1075-2730 |pmid=33950746 |s2cid=233869772|url-access=subscription }} Housing First has been met with success since its initial implementations in 2009, by providing relatively no strings-attached housing to homeless people with substance use disorder problems or mental health issues. Housing First allows homeless men and women to be taken directly off the street into private community-based apartments, without requiring treatment first. This allows homeless people to return to some sense of normalcy, from which it is believed that they are better-poised to tackle their addictions or sicknesses. The relapse rate through these types of programs is lower than that of conventional homeless programs.Abel, David, [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/02/24/for_the_homeless_keys_to_a_home/ "For the homeless, keys to a home: Large-scale effort to keep many off street faces hurdles"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013231317/http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/02/24/for_the_homeless_keys_to_a_home/|date=October 13, 2008}}, Boston Globe, February 24, 2008.Karash, Robert L., [http://sparechangenews.net/news/housing-lost-housing-regained-housing-kept-0 "Housing Lost, Housing Regained, Housing Kept"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724080741/http://sparechangenews.net/news/housing-lost-housing-regained-housing-kept-0|date=July 24, 2011}}, Spare Change News, Boston, February 25, 2010.{{Cite journal |last1=Atherton |first1=Iain |last2=Nicholls |first2=Carol McNaughton |date=December 2008 |title='Housing First' as a means of addressing multiple needs and homelessness |url=http://dspace.stir.ac.uk/handle/1893/9035 |url-status=live |journal=European Journal of Homelessness |language=en |volume=2 |pages=289–303 |issn=2030-2762 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222153554/https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/handle/1893/9035 |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |access-date=October 24, 2022}}

The BHH Collective is a program that has implemented the Housing First approach. It began in 2015 as an initiative in Chicago, Illinois, between BHH and University of Illinois Hospital to provide for frequently homeless emergency department patients.{{Cite journal |last=Kuehn |first=Bridget M. |date=March 5, 2019 |title=Hospitals Turn to Housing to Help Homeless Patients |journal=JAMA |language=en |volume=321 |issue=9 |pages=822–824 |doi=10.1001/jama.2018.21476 |issn=0098-7484 |pmid=30758505 |s2cid=73419698}} The housing was paid for by the hospital and federal housing subsidies. The program provides the individuals with case managers, specialized health services based on the individual's needs, and other services they need. BHH Collective aims to address the connection between housing and health by providing supportive housing to homeless individuals in order to improve the health of homeless people and address homelessness at the same time.{{Cite web |title=Center for Housing and Health |url=https://housingforhealth.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801191112/https://housingforhealth.org/ |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |access-date=May 14, 2020 |website=housingforhealth.org}}

Studies have been conducted to demonstrate the ability of homeless people to receive and maintain houses and jobs when provided with adequate support. In LA's Homeless Opportunity Providing Employment (HOPE), for homeless adults with mental illness, individual characteristics in regards to specific mental illness or substance abuse played little role in the systemic difference to the employment outcomes. However, these factors including race and ethnicity, affected individual housing outcomes.{{Cite journal |last=Burt |first=Martha R. |date=March 2012 |title=Impact of Housing and Work Supports on Outcomes for Chronically Homeless Adults With Mental Illness: LA's HOPE |url=http://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.ps.201100100 |journal=Psychiatric Services |language=en |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=209–215 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.201100100 |issn=1075-2730 |pmid=22307878|url-access=subscription }}

The provision of housing for homeless people reduces healthcare costs, inpatient hospitalizations, and emergency room costs. When provided with supportive housing, many homeless people are eligible for healthcare coverage. People with housing are less likely to need health services, as a stable home provides protection from the elements, prevention from sicknesses, wounds and infections, and a generally safer environment than the streets.{{Cite journal |last=Garrett |first=Daniel G. |date=2012 |title=The Business Case for Ending Homelessness: Having a Home Improves Health, Reduces Healthcare Utilization and Costs |journal=American Health & Drug Benefits |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=17–19 |issn=1942-2962 |pmc=4046466 |pmid=24991307}}{{Cite journal |last1=Tsemberis |first1=Sam |last2=Kent |first2=Douglas |last3=Respress |first3=Christy |date=January 2012 |title=Housing Stability and Recovery Among Chronically Homeless Persons With {{as written|Co-Occ|uring [sic]}} Disorders in Washington, DC |journal=American Journal of Public Health |language=en |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=13–16 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2011.300320 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=3490566 |pmid=22390393}} This is what Rapid Rehousing programs (RRHP) support. Designed to aid families experiencing homelessness, RRHP provides access to private affordable housing markets for a better transition back into stable housing.{{Cite journal |last1=García |first1=Ivis |last2=Kim |first2=Keuntae |date=July 2020 |title="I Felt Safe": The Role of the Rapid Rehousing Program in Supporting the Security of Families Experiencing Homelessness in Salt Lake County, Utah |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=17 |issue=13 |pages=4840 |doi=10.3390/ijerph17134840 |issn=1661-7827 |pmc=7369730 |pmid=32635606 |doi-access=free}} The three major parts necessary for the program's success are: finding landlords and appropriate housing, providing move-in assistance; providing case management and support services to ensure the prolonged and eventual permanent rehousing success of each family.

In the early 2000s, the provision of housing for homeless persons was contingent on their treatment and abstinence from addictive substances.{{Cite journal |last1=Aubry |first1=Tim |last2=Goering |first2=Paula |last3=Veldhuizen |first3=Scott |last4=Adair |first4=Carol E. |last5=Bourque |first5=Jimmy |last6=Distasio |first6=Jino |last7=Latimer |first7=Eric |last8=Stergiopoulos |first8=Vicky |last9=Somers |first9=Julian |last10=Streiner |first10=David L. |last11=Tsemberis |first11=Sam |date=March 2016 |title=A Multiple-City RCT of Housing First With Assertive Community Treatment for Homeless Canadians With Serious Mental Illness |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26620289/ |url-status=live |journal=Psychiatric Services |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=275–281 |doi=10.1176/appi.ps.201400587 |issn=1557-9700 |pmid=26620289 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110212601/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26620289/ |archive-date=November 10, 2022 |access-date=November 10, 2022}} However, emerging Permanent supportive housing approaches reversed the requirements, and provided homeless people housing without evidence of treatment for mental illness or substance abuse.{{Cite journal |last1=Aubry |first1=Tim |last2=Bloch |first2=Gary |last3=Brcic |first3=Vanessa |last4=Saad |first4=Ammar |last5=Magwood |first5=Olivia |last6=Abdalla |first6=Tasnim |last7=Alkhateeb |first7=Qasem |last8=Xie |first8=Edward |last9=Mathew |first9=Christine |last10=Hannigan |first10=Terry |last11=Costello |first11=Chris |last12=Thavorn |first12=Kednapa |last13=Stergiopoulos |first13=Vicky |last14=Tugwell |first14=Peter |last15=Pottie |first15=Kevin |date=June 1, 2020 |title=Effectiveness of permanent supportive housing and income assistance interventions for homeless individuals in high-income countries: a systematic review |journal=The Lancet Public Health |language=English |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=e342–e360 |doi=10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30055-4 |issn=2468-2667 |pmid=32504587 |s2cid=219529366 |doi-access=free}} These interventions are usually paired with case managers. With the inclusion of income assistance programs, there is a significant increase in number of days spent stably housed for participating individuals.

Other interventions include supportive services which come in various forms that can be done independently or paired with housing such as critical time intervention, housing vouchers, residential treatment, high-intensity case management, and combinations of the aforementioned. These have been found to be effective in reducing homelessness and, when paired with housing, increasing housing stability, especially any form of participation in case management is generally equally effective.{{Cite journal |last=Munthe-Kaas |first=Heather Menzies |last2=Berg |first2=Rigmor C |last3=Blaasvær |first3=Nora |date=2018 |title=Effectiveness of interventions to reduce homelessness: a systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.4073/csr.2018.3 |journal=Campbell Systematic Reviews |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–281 |doi=10.4073/csr.2018.3 |issn=1891-1803 |pmc=8427990 |pmid=37131370}}

Permanent supportive housing (PSH) is an intervention that provides housing that does not limit residents' stays, along with supportive services that residents can opt into. PSH programs typically prioritize chronic homelessness, but can address other subpopulations of the homeless population.{{Cite journal |last=Culhane |first=Dennis P. |last2=and Metraux |first2=Stephen |date=2008-01-31 |title=Rearranging the Deck Chairs or Reallocating the Lifeboats? Homelessness Assistance and Its Alternatives |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01944360701821618 |journal=Journal of the American Planning Association |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=111–121 |doi=10.1080/01944360701821618 |issn=0194-4363}} It is argued that PSH in particular will complement and alleviate the stress of the mainstream welfare system and short-term housing solutions such as shelters, while reducing costs in addressing homelessness.

There is ongoing discourse on how to make PSH the most effective, these considerations include assessing the housing, the supportive services, and the intensity of the resources available. Assessing these factors has been challenging since these housing models are typically fragmented. The effectiveness of PSH programs is considered to be reliant on the quality and location of the housing. Some benefits found from PSH include eliminating numerous potential health risks through reducing environmental risks and external stressors.

In 2001, President Bush made ending chronic homelessness by 2012 as part of his [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fact-sheet-progress-for-the-presidents-compassion-agenda Compassion Agenda], as his campaign promised to fully fund the McKinney Act.{{Cite journal |last=Sparks |first=Tony |date=November 14, 2011 |title=Governing the Homeless in an Age of Compassion: Homelessness, Citizenship, and the 10-Year Plan to End Homelessness in King County Washington |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2011.00957.x |journal=Antipode |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=1510–1533 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8330.2011.00957.x |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet: Progress for the President's Compassion Agenda {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fact-sheet-progress-for-the-presidents-compassion-agenda |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024150529/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fact-sheet-progress-for-the-presidents-compassion-agenda |archive-date=October 24, 2022 |access-date=October 24, 2022 |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu}}{{Cite journal |last=Manning |first=Steven |date=February 10, 1989 |title=Is the government doing enough to end homelessness? |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=07457065&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA7355081&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |url-status=live |journal=Scholastic Update |language=English |volume=121 |issue=11 |pages=14–16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222154208/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=07457065&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA7355081&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs&userGroupName=nm_p_oweb&isGeoAuthType=true |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |access-date=November 10, 2022}} The bi-partisan, congressionally mandated, Millennial Housing Commission included ending chronic homelessness in 10 years, among its principal recommendations in its Report to Congress in 2002. By 2003, the Interagency Council on Homelessness had been re-engaged and charged with pursuing the President's 10-year plan.{{Cite web |last=Berg |first=Steve |date=October 24, 2022 |title=Ten-Year Plans to End Homelessness |url=https://nlihc.org/sites/default/files/Sec7.08_Ten-Year-Plan_2015.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504175938/https://nlihc.org/sites/default/files/Sec7.08_Ten-Year-Plan_2015.pdf |archive-date=May 4, 2022 |access-date=October 24, 2022 |website=National Low Income Housing Coalition}}

In October 2003, the Administration announced the award of over $48 million in grants aimed at serving the needs of the chronically homeless, through two initiatives. The "Ending Chronic Homelessness through Employment and Housing" initiative was a collaborative grant offered jointly by HUD and the Department of Labor (DOL).{{Cite web |last=Melgoza |first=Brianna |title=Rehabilitation Centers as a Fundamental Challenge to Reduce Chronic Homelessness: A Review of the Literature |url=https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/theses/xp68kj33t |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024164551/https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/concern/theses/xp68kj33t |archive-date=October 24, 2022 |access-date=October 24, 2022 |website=scholarworks.calstate.edu |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=National Coalition for the Homeless |url=https://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/homelessemploymentreport/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308135307/http://nationalhomeless.org/publications/homelessemploymentreport/index.html |archive-date=March 8, 2022 |access-date=March 15, 2022 |website=nationalhomeless.org}} With the focus on providing housing and employment for the homeless population, there was not much attention placed on their comprehensive health. Addressing homeless health is difficult in a traditional healthcare setting, due to the complex nature of the needs of homeless people and the multitude of health consequences they face. In 2003–04, during the 108th United States Congress meeting, the proposed [https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/house-bill/2897?s=1&r=2 Bringing America Home Act] was intended to provide comprehensive treatment for many homeless mental and substance use disorder patients - it has not been passed or funded.{{cite news |date=February 24, 2015 |title=How Libraries Are Adapting To Help Homeless Find Jobs, Health Services |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/02/24/nashville-library-homeless_n_6746162.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317143722/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/02/24/nashville-library-homeless_n_6746162.html |archive-date=March 17, 2017 |access-date=March 28, 2017 |work=The Huffington Post}}

In 2010, under President Obama's administration, a federal strategic plan to end homelessness was released. This plan created four key goals: Prevent and end homelessness among Veterans in 5 years; Finish the job of ending chronic homelessness in 7 years; Prevent and end homelessness for families, youth, and children in 10 years; Set a path to ending all types of homelessness.{{Cite book |last1=National Academies of Sciences |first1=Engineering |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519584/ |title=The History of Homelessness in the United States |last2=Division |first2=Health and Medicine |last3=Practice |first3=Board on Population Health and Public Health |last4=Affairs |first4=Policy and Global |last5=Program |first5=Science and Technology for Sustainability |last6=Individuals |first6=Committee on an Evaluation of Permanent Supportive Housing Programs for Homeless |date=July 11, 2018 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |language=en |access-date=November 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120154045/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519584/ |archive-date=November 20, 2022 |url-status=live}} Capitalizing on these insights, the Plan built on previous reforms and the intent by the Obama Administration to directly address homelessness through intergovernmental cooperation for rehabilitating the homeless population and preventing homelessness to those at high-risk.{{Cite web |last=United States Interagency Council on Homelessness |date=September 29, 2017 |title=United States Interagency Council on Homelessness Historical Overview |url=https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/USICH_OpeningDoors_Amendment2015_FINAL.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028222922/https://www.usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/USICH_OpeningDoors_Amendment2015_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=October 28, 2019 |access-date=November 10, 2022}} In 2015, First Lady Michelle Obama called for the collaboration of mayors, governors, and county officials to commit to ending Veteran homelessness in their communities, and reached out to additional mayors and local leaders to participate.

Homelessness has a tremendous effect on a child's education. Education of homeless youth is thought to be essential in breaking the cycle of poverty. The 1987 McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act mandates equal opportunity to a free public education to homeless students. This act is supposed to break down the barriers homeless students have to receiving an education. These barriers include residency restriction, medical record verification, and transportation issues.Abramson, Larry, [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95222948 "Amid Foreclosures, A Rise In Homeless Students"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906133736/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95222948|date=September 6, 2017}}, All Things Considered program, NPR, September 30, 2008.

Once a student surpasses these barriers, they are still subject to the stigma of being homeless, and the humiliation they feel because of their situation. Some families do not report their homelessness, while others are unaware of the opportunities available to them. Many report that maintaining a stable school environment helps the students because it is the only thing that remains normal. Many homeless students fall behind their peers in school due to behavioral disorders, and lack of attendance in school.Nieves, Evelyn, [https://abcnews.go.com/US/WireStory?id=6497841&page=1 "In Tough Times, Ranks of Homeless Students Rising: School districts find unprecedented increase in numbers of homeless students across US"], Associated Press, December 19, 2008

Since the United States housing bubble collapse, there has been a rise in the number of homeless students. In December 2008, NAEHCY or the National Association for the Education of Homeless for Children and Youth, reported a 99% increase in homeless students within a three-month period in San Diego.Duffield, Barbara; Lovell, Phillip, [http://www.naehcy.org/dl/TheEconomicCrisisHitsHome.pdf "The Economic Crisis Hits Home: The Unfolding Increase in Child & Youth Homelessness"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220193050/http://www.naehcy.org/dl/TheEconomicCrisisHitsHome.pdf|date=February 20, 2016}}, National Association for the Education of Homeless Children and Youth (NAEHCY), December 2008

Of 1,636 schools in December 2008, 330 reported no increase in student homelessness, 847 reported an increase of half, and 459 reported an increase of 25 percent or more. Due to underfunding, many school districts struggled to provide the necessary services to support homeless students, as mandated in the provisions of the McKinney–Vento Act, such as rising transportation needs and the greater range and usefulness of services. Wisconsin Rapids Public Schools Homeless Liaison Heather Lisitza says:

{{blockquote|quote=One of the biggest challenges our district faces is providing transportation to students who are experiencing homelessness. There are few approaches that our district can utilize to provide transportation for these students. Our city has only one taxi cab service and no public bus system. Our cab company is small and simply cannot fulfill all of our transportation requests. When it's possible, we add students to existing bus routes or set up a contractual agreement with the student's parent/guardian. However, there have been many situations where none of these options have worked. Another challenge our district faces is providing proper outer-wear for students who are homeless. Being that we live in central Wisconsin and have long, cold winters, all students need proper outerwear to go outside. Proper outerwear includes snow boots, hat, mittens, snow pants, and a winter jacket that has a working zipper or buttons on it. This expense adds up quickly and is hard to provide to the increasing number of homeless students.}}

This is especially worrisome since homeless students are 1) 1.5 times more likely to perform below grade level in reading; 2) 1.5 times more likely to perform below grade level in spelling; and 3) 2.5 times more likely to perform below grade level in math.

There are a few worries that there will be false reports of homeless students, but mostly it is not an issue.

The United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH) was established in 1987 through the McKinney-Vento Assistance Act. It was in operation from 1987 to 1994 and was reinstated in 2001 to 2028. The USICH is an executive branch responsible for collaborating with government agencies to assess targeted programs, or also known as programs geared towards assisting persons experiencing homelessness. The targeted programs address the impacts of homelessness on individuals, spanning from various federal agencies such as the Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), and the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The Chronic Homelessness Initiative, one of the projects USICH has led, was a ten-year plan to ending chronic homelessness begun in 2002 through housing programs such as low-threshold and permanent supportive housing.{{Cite book |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25133/permanent-supportive-housing-evaluating-the-evidence-for-improving-health-outcomes |title=Permanent Supportive Housing: Evaluating the Evidence for Improving Health Outcomes Among People Experiencing Chronic Homelessness |date=2018-07-11 |publisher=National Academies Press |others=Committee on an Evaluation of Permanent Supportive Housing Programs for Homeless Individuals, Science and Technology for Sustainability Program, Policy and Global Affairs, Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice, Health and Medicine Division, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine |isbn=978-0-309-47704-8 |location=Washington, D.C. |doi=10.17226/25133}}

There has been robust discourse discussing whose responsibility it is to end homelessness; some actors argued to be responsible include individuals, local governments, state governments, and the federal government.{{Cite journal |last=Moulton |first=Shawn |date=2013 |title=Does Increased Funding for Homeless Programs Reduce Chronic Homelessness? |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23809686 |journal=Southern Economic Journal |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=600–620 |issn=0038-4038}} Scholars debate what solutions should be used to end homelessness. Recommendations include assessing the current homelessness relief system and alternative ways to rearrange the system so that solutions, such as permanent supportive housing and residential transitional programming, target the most impacted groups of individuals experiencing homelessness and are provided for an appropriate period.

Some scholars call for the federal government to broaden its tolerance for solutions to homelessness beyond just permanently subsidized housing. Arguments made recognize that the shift to Housing First has reduced the punishing tactics while failing to include the diverse homeless population’s needs and demand that solutions are more compassionate, inclusive, and efficient than the current system. Other critiques of the current homelessness relief system include mismatches in timeliness, quantity, and quality of needs and available resources.

In May 1991, Richard Kreimer, a homeless man in Morristown, N.J. sued the local public library and the Town of Morristown for expelling him from the library, after other patrons complained about his disruptive behavior and pungent body odor. He later won the case and settled for $250,000.{{cite news |date=March 10, 1992 |title=Homeless Man Sues Library, Police, Wins $250,000 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19920310&id=x9tRAAAAIBAJ&pg=5495,2310374 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813105526/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19920310&id=x9tRAAAAIBAJ&pg=5495,2310374 |archive-date=August 13, 2021 |access-date=August 28, 2020 |newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette}}{{cite web |title=Kreimer v. Morristown |url=http://www.ahcuah.com/lawsuit/federal/kreimer1.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725065341/http://www.ahcuah.com/lawsuit/federal/kreimer1.htm |archive-date=July 25, 2017 |access-date=September 16, 2017 |website=ahcuah.com}}

Public libraries can and often do significantly assist with the issues presented by homelessness. In many communities, the library is the only facility that offers free computer and internet access. This is where many people experiencing homelessness go to locate services for basic needs, such as healthcare, education, and housing. Library computers are necessary for building a resume, searching for open jobs in the area, and completing job applications.

A 2010 article and video entitled, "SF library offers Social Services to Homeless,"{{cite web |last=Tyler |first=Carolyn |date=May 24, 2010 |title=San Francisco library offers social services to homeless | abc7news.com |url=https://abc7news.com/archive/7459632/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508083142/http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=news%2Fassignment_7&id=7459632 |archive-date=May 8, 2014 |access-date=March 28, 2017 |website=Abclocal.go.com}} speaks about the San Francisco library having a full-time social worker at the library to reduce and help homeless patrons. It mentions that Leah Esguerra, who is a psychiatric social worker, has a usual routine making her rounds to different homeless patrons, and greeting them to see if she could help them. She offers help in different forms that could range from linking patrons with services, or providing them with mental health counseling. She supervises a 12-week vocational program that culminates in gainful employment in the library for the formerly homeless.Knight, H. (January 11, 2010). Library adds social worker to assist homeless. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved December 17, 2010

The San Jose University Library became one of the first academic libraries to pay attention to the needs of homeless people and implement changes to better serve this population. In 2007, the merged University Library and Public Library made the choice to be proactive in reaching out. Collaborations with non-profit organizations in the area culminated in computer classes being taught, as well as nutrition classes, family literacy programs, and book discussion groups.{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=L. |last2=Howard |first2=F. |last3=Miraflor |first3=A. |year=2009 |title=Addressing the needs of the homeless: A San Jose Library partnership approach |url=https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/lib_pub/47 |url-status=live |journal=The Reference Librarian |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=109–116 |doi=10.1080/02763870802546472 |s2cid=62328396 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418031422/https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/lib_pub/47/ |archive-date=April 18, 2021 |access-date=May 19, 2021|url-access=subscription }} After eighteen months, the library staff felt they still were not doing enough and "analyzed program participation trends supplemented by observation and anecdotes" in order to better understand the information needs of homeless people. When it was understood that these needs are complex, additional customer service training was provided to all staff who were interested.

Once the staff more fully understood the needs of homeless people, it was determined that many programs in place already, with a few minor adjustments, would be helpful to homeless people. For example, the providing book clubs have proven to be very effective bridges between librarians and homeless people.{{Cite journal |date=2011 |title=THE PROBLEM IS NOT THE HOMELESS |journal=Library Journal |volume=136 |pages=30–34 |via=ebscohost}} Programs were tailored to meet these needs. Additional changes implemented included temporary computer passes and a generous in-house reading space to counteract the policies in place that may prevent a homeless person from obtaining a library card.

The Dallas Public Library started "Coffee and Conversation" which is part of their Homeless Engagement Initiative. The staff hopes these bimonthly events between staff and homeless patrons will help them better serve the homeless people population in Dallas.Sandi Fox, [https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/see-libraries-across-country-serving-homeless/ "From nurses to social workers, see how public libraries are serving the homeless"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907181239/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/see-libraries-across-country-serving-homeless/|date=September 7, 2017}}, PBS NEWSHOUR, January 28, 2015 They sponsor Street View podcast, a library produced podcast featuring the stories and experiences of the city's homeless population. Guests often include social service providers.Dallas Public Library, [http://dallaslibrary2.org/blogs/bookedSolid/2014/10/what-is-the-library-doing-to-address-the-issue-of-homelessness/ "What is the library doing to address the issue of homelessness?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905114701/http://dallaslibrary2.org/blogs/bookedSolid/2014/10/what-is-the-library-doing-to-address-the-issue-of-homelessness/|date=September 5, 2015}}, Booked Solid, October 16, 2014

{{Main|Homelessness in the United States by state|List of homeless relocation programs in the United States}}As of 2023, the issue of homelessness in the US is severe, with states like California, New York, Florida, Texas, and Washington having a combined number of over 330,000 homeless people. In 2023, California alone had over 161,000. Although begging and panhandling is one of the main ways homeless people obtain money, in Kansas, Mississippi, and Maryland, begging and panhandling are considered crimes.[https://www.farsnews.ir/news/14020301000630 6% increase in homelessness in the state of California] retrieved 1 October 2023 In June 2024, a U.S. Supreme Court 6-3 ruling, permitted cities to enforce bans on homeless people sleeping in public places.{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/article/supreme-court-homeless-camping-bans-506ac68dc069e3bf456c10fcedfa6bee|first=Lindsay|last=Whitehurst|title=Divided Supreme Court rules in major homelessness case that outdoor sleeping bans are OK |work=Associated Press News|date=June 28, 2024|accessdate=June 28, 2024}}

California has been identified as especially vulnerable to homelessness due to high housing costs that are unaffordable and a lack of shelters, which have left a large portion of the population unsheltered. Homelessness in California is especially prevalent due to the growing demand for housing, while the production of new housing has been well below the national average. Homelessness in California is disproportionately concentrated in select cities such as San Francisco and Los Angeles. Some scholars emphasize that this is not an issue that select cities are solely responsible for, nor do they have the capacity to solve. They claim the federal government has failed to take a meaningful role in alleviating homelessness.{{Cite journal |last=Murphy |first=Stacey |date=25 February 2009 |title="Compassionate" Strategies of Managing Homelessness: Post-Revanchist Geographies in San Francisco |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2009.00674.x |journal=Antipode |volume=41 |pages=305–325}}

Many advocates for homeless people contend that a key difficulty is the social stigma surrounding homelessness. Many associate a lack of a permanent home with a lack of a proper bathroom and limited access to regular grooming. Thus, people that are homeless become "aesthetically unappealing" to the general public. Research shows that "physically attractive persons are judged more positively than physically unattractive individuals on various traits... reflecting social competence."[http://jcc.sagepub.com/content/21/2/158.abstract "Stereotyping Physical Attractiveness, A Sociocultural Perspective"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107065207/http://jcc.sagepub.com/content/21/2/158.abstract |date=November 7, 2015 }}, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1986.

In addition to the physical component of stigmatization exists an association of homeless people with mental illness. Many people consider the mentally ill to be irresponsible and childlike and treat them with fear and exclusion, using their mental incapacitation as justification for why they should be left out of communities.{{cite journal |pmc = 1489832 |pmid = 16946807 |volume = 1 |issue = 1 |title = Understanding the impact of stigma on people with mental illness |year = 2002 |journal = World Psychiatry |pages = 16–20 |last1 = Corrigan |first1 = PW |last2 = Watson |first2 = AC }}

A common misconception persists that many individuals who panhandle are not actually homeless, but actually use pity and compassion to fund their lifestyles, making up to $20 an hour and living luxurious lives.{{cite web |last = Sanders |first = Hannah |title = Panhandling in West Michigan: Report finds many are not homeless |url = http://www.freep.com/article/20130716/NEWS06/307160129/Panhandling-in-West-Michigan-Report-finds-many-are-not-homeless |website = Detroit Free Press |access-date = April 28, 2014 |archive-date = April 29, 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140429050157/http://www.freep.com/article/20130716/NEWS06/307160129/Panhandling-in-West-Michigan-Report-finds-many-are-not-homeless |url-status = live }} This exception to the rule seems more prevalent due to media attention, but in reality, only a few cases exist.{{cite web |last = Keyes |first = Scott |title = Everything You Think You Know About Panhandlers Is Wrong |url = http://thinkprogress.org/economy/2013/10/30/2856411/panhandling-stats/ |website = Think Progress |access-date = April 28, 2014 |archive-date = April 29, 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140429080055/http://thinkprogress.org/economy/2013/10/30/2856411/panhandling-stats/ |url-status = live }}

Public opinion surveys show relatively little support for this view. A 1995 paper in the American Journal of Community Psychology concluded that "although the homeless are clearly stigmatized, there is little evidence to suggest that the public has lost compassion and is unwilling to support policies to help homeless people."{{cite journal |doi = 10.1007/BF02506967 |vauthors = Link BG, Schwartz S, Moore R, etal |title = Public knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about homeless people: evidence for compassion fatigue |journal = Am J Community Psychol |volume = 23 |issue = 4 |pages = 533–55 |date = August 1995 |pmid = 8546109 |s2cid = 26492219 }} A Penn State study in 2004 concluded that "familiarity breeds sympathy" and greater support for addressing the problem.American Sociological Association: [http://www.asanet.org/page.ww?name=Exposure+to+the+Homeless+Increases+Sympathetic+Public+Attitudes§ion=Press "Exposure to the Homeless Increases Sympathetic Public Attitudes"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927072609/http://www.asanet.org/page.ww?name=Exposure+to+the+Homeless+Increases+Sympathetic+Public+Attitudes§ion=Press |date=September 27, 2007}}, press release, March 22, 2004.

A 2007 survey conducted by Public Agenda, a non-profit organization that helps leaders and their citizens navigate through complex social issues, found that 67 percent of New Yorkers agreed that most homeless people were without shelter because of "circumstances beyond their control", including high housing costs and lack of good and steady employment. More than one-third (36 percent) said they worried about becoming homeless themselves, with 15 percent saying they were "very worried." 90 percent of New Yorkers believed that everyone has a right to shelter, and 68 percent believed that the government is responsible for guaranteeing that right to its citizens. The survey found support for investments in prevention, rental assistance and permanent housing for homeless people.Public Agenda: [http://www.publicagenda.org/media/compassion-concern-and-conflicted-feelings "Compassion, Concern and Conflicted Feelings: New Yorkers on Homelessness and Housing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709024206/http://publicagenda.org/media/compassion-concern-and-conflicted-feelings |date=July 9, 2016 }}, 2007, accessed July 8, 2016.

Research by Public Agenda concluded that the public's sympathy has limits. In a 2002 national survey, the organization found 74 percent say the police should leave a homeless person alone if they are not bothering anyone. In contrast, 71 percent say the police should move homeless people if they are keeping customers away from a shopping area. 51 percent say homeless people should be moved if they are driving other people away from a public park.Public Agenda: [http://www.publicagenda.org/media/knowing-it-by-heart "Knowing It by Heart: Americans Consider the Constitution and its Meaning"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609134851/http://www.publicagenda.org/media/knowing-it-by-heart |date=June 9, 2016 }}, 2002, retrieved July 8, 2016.

Completely accurate and comprehensive statistics are difficult to acquire for any social study, but especially so when measuring the ambiguous hidden, and erratic reality of homelessness. All figures given are estimates. These estimates represent overall national averages. The proportions of specific homeless communities can vary substantially depending on local geography.Karash, Robert L., [http://sparechangenews.net/news/who-homeless-hud-annual-report-congress-and-homelessness-pulse-project "Who is Homeless? The HUD Annual Report to Congress and Homelessness Pulse Project"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724080711/http://sparechangenews.net/news/who-homeless-hud-annual-report-congress-and-homelessness-pulse-project |date=July 24, 2011 }}, Spare Change News, Boston, June 18, 2010

File:US yearly timeline of people experiencing homelessness 2020.png (HUD).]]

Perhaps the most accurate, comprehensive, and current data on homelessness in the United States is reported annually by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in the Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress (AHAR), released every year since 2007. The AHAR report relies on data from two sources: single-night, point-in-time counts of both sheltered and unsheltered homeless populations reported on the Continuum of Care applications to HUD; and counts of the sheltered homeless population over a full year provided by a sample of communities based on data in their Management Information Systems (HMIS).

Over the course of the year (October 2009 – September 2010), the 2010 Annual Homeless Assessment Report found that 1,593,150 individuals experienced homelessness.{{cite web |publisher = Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration |archive-date = May 10, 2007 |url = http://homeless.samhsa.gov/ResourceFiles/hrc_factsheet.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070510103756/http://homeless.samhsa.gov/ResourceFiles/hrc_factsheet.pdf |date = May 10, 2007 |title = Current Statistics on the Prevalence and Characteristics of People Experiencing Homelessness in the United States }}{{cite web |url = http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/How_Many.html |title = How Many People Experience Homelessness? |work = nationalhomeless.org |access-date = August 2, 2011 |archive-date = August 14, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110814145630/http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/How_Many.html |url-status = live }} Most were homeless temporarily. The chronically homeless population, those with repeated episodes or who have been homeless for long periods, decreased from 175,914 in 2005 to 123,833 in 2007.{{cite web |title = U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development |url = http://www.hud.gov/news/release.cfm?content=pr08-113.cfm |publisher = Hud.gov |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080806023149/http://www.hud.gov/news/release.cfm?content=pr08-113.cfm |archive-date = August 6, 2008 |df = mdy-all }} In the 2017 AHAR (Annual Homeless Assessment Report) about 553,742 people experienced homelessness, which was a 1% increase from 2016.{{cite web |url = https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2017-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |title = Resources |date = 2017 |website = www.hudexchange.info |access-date = February 28, 2018 |archive-date = December 9, 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201209214652/https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2017-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |url-status = live }} An April 2022 YouGov survey found that 19 percent of Americans reported having ever been homeless, while a December 2023 survey found that 17 percent of Americans reported having been homeless at one point in their lives.{{Cite web |last=Bialik |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Bialik |last2=Orth |first2=Taylor |date=2022-05-17 |title=Who do Americans blame for homelessness? |url=https://today.yougov.com/politics/articles/42548-american-attitudes-on-homelessness-poll |access-date=2024-11-28 |website=YouGov}}{{Cite web |last=Ballard |first=Jamie |date=2024-01-31 |title=Americans are more likely to say homelessness is a serious problem than they were in 2022 |url=https://today.yougov.com/politics/articles/48510-more-americans-homelessness-serious-problem-poll |access-date=2024-11-28 |website=YouGov}}

In the 2010 NCHWIH report:National Coalition for the Homeless [http://nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/who.html Who is homeless?], Published by the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCHWIH) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414172730/http://nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/who.html |date=April 14, 2010}}

• 51.3% are single males.
• 24.7% are single females.
• 23% are families with children—the fastest growing segment.
• 5% are minors unaccompanied by adults.
• 39% of the total homeless population are children under the age of 18.

In the 2014 NCHWIH report:

• 24% are married.
• 76% are single.
• 67.5% are single males within the single percentage.
• 32.5% are single females within the single percentage.

File:Ted Hayes .jpg in Skid Row, Los Angeles. The 2019 count found 58,936 homeless people living in Los Angeles County.{{cite news |title = Los Angeles County homeless population rises 12% to nearly 60,000 |url = https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2019/06/04/los-angeles-homeless-population-up-12-amid-affordable-housing-crisis/1336734001/ |work = USA Today |date = June 4, 2019 |access-date = August 10, 2019 |archive-date = February 22, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230222154207/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2019/06/04/los-angeles-homeless-population-up-12-amid-affordable-housing-crisis/1336734001/ |url-status = live }}]]

In the 2010 SAMHSA report, among all sheltered individuals over the course of a year (October 2009-September 2010):

Gender, Age, Race/Ethnicity

• 41.6% are White, Non-Hispanic
• 9.7% are White, Hispanic
• 37% are Black/African-American
• 4.5% are other single races;
• 7.2% are multiple races

In the 2014 NCHWIH report:

• 42% are African American (over-represented 3.23× compared to 13% of general population).
• 38% are Caucasian (under-represented 0.53× compared to 72% of general population).
• 20% are Hispanic (over-represented 1.25× compared to 16% of general population).
• 4% are Native American (over-represented 4× compared to 1% of general population).
• 2% are Asian-American (under-represented 0.4× compared to 5% of general population).

In the 2010 SAMHSA report:

• 26.2% of all sheltered persons who were homeless had a severe mental illness
• About 30% of people who are chronically homeless have mental health conditions.

In analyses of data from the 1996 NSHAPCxiv:{{cite web |url = http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/410496-The-National-Survey-of-Homeless-Assistance-Providers-and-Clients.PDF |title = The 1996 National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients: A Comparison of Faith-Based and Secular Non-Profit Programs |publisher = Urban Institute |year = 1996 |access-date = January 9, 2016 |archive-date = March 4, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043925/http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/alfresco/publication-pdfs/410496-The-National-Survey-of-Homeless-Assistance-Providers-and-Clients.PDF |url-status = dead }}

• Over 60% of people who are chronically homeless have experienced lifetime mental health problems

In the 2010 SAMHSA report:

• 34.7% of all sheltered adults who were homeless had chronic substance use issues
• About 50% of people who are chronically homeless had co-occurring substance use problems.

In analyses of data from the 1996 NSHAPCxiv:

• Over 80% have experienced lifetime alcohol and/or drug problems

According to the 1996 Urban Institute findings of the National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients (UIHAC) report

• 53% have less than a high school education
• 21% have completed high school
• 27% have some education beyond high school.

In the 1996 UIHAC report:{{cite web|url=http://www.urban.org/publications/310291.html|title=Homelessness: Programs and the People They Serve {{ndash}} Findings of the National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients|publisher=Urban Institute|year=1999|access-date=May 27, 2006|archive-date=April 8, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408052644/http://www.urban.org/publications/310291.html|url-status=dead}}

:*44 percent did paid work during the past month. Of these:

:*20 percent worked in a job lasting or expected to last at least three months.

:*25 percent worked at a temporary or day labor job.

:*2 percent earned money by peddling or selling personal belongings.

A 2010 longitudinal study of homeless men conducted in Birmingham, Alabama, found that most earned an average of ninety dollars per week, while working an average of thirty hours per weekWasserman, J. A., & Clair, J. M. (2010). At Home On The Street . Boulder, Colorado: Lyne Rienner Publishers, Inc.

In the 2010 SAMHSA report:

• 71% reside in central cities.
• 21% are in suburbs.
• 9% are in rural areas.

In 2019, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development reported:{{cite news |title = Los Angeles: Why tens of thousands of people sleep rough |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-49687478 |work = BBC News |date = September 19, 2019 |access-date = November 16, 2019 |archive-date = November 16, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191116171352/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-49687478 |url-status = live }}

• 78,676 homeless in New York City
• 75,000{{cite news |last=Levin |first=Sam |title=Los Angeles unhoused population reaches 75,000 amid humanitarian crisis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jun/29/los-angeles-county-homelessness-unhoused-population |website=The Guardian|date=June 29, 2023 |access-date = 9 July 2023}} homeless in Los Angeles
• 12,112 homeless in Seattle

In the 2010 SAMHSA report, research on shelter use in New York City and Philadelphia concluded that:

:* People experiencing transitional homelessness constitute 80% of shelter users

:* People experiencing episodic homelessness comprise 10% of shelter users.

In New York City

:* Transitionally homeless individuals experience an average of 1.4 stays over a 3-year period, for a total of 58 days on average over the 3 years.

:* Episodically homeless individuals, on average, experience 4.9 shelter episodes over a 3-year period totaling 264 days with an average length of stay of 54.4 days.

Data from the 1996 NSHAPC, show that about 50% of people who were homeless were experiencing their first or second episode of homelessness, which typically lasted a few weeks or months to one year.

In the 2017 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report:"The 2017 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress DECEMBER 2017." The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Community Planning and Development. https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2017-AHAR-Part-1.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209214652/https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2017-AHAR-Part-1.pdf |date=December 9, 2020 }}. page 9.

• 60.5% are male.
• 39% are female.
• 0.4% are transgender
• 0.2% do not identify as male, female, or transgender.

In the 2017 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report:

• 20.7% are under 18.
• 9.7% are 18–24.
• 69.6% are over 24.

• Housing insecurity in the United States
• Poverty in the United States

{{Reflist}}

• Aguirre, Adalberto; Brooks, Jonathan. (2001), [http://www.emeraldinsight.com/books.htm?chapterid=1783956&show=pdf "City redevelopment policies and the criminalization of homelessness: A narrative case study"], in Kevin Fox Gotham (ed.) Critical Perspectives on Urban Redevelopment (Research in Urban Sociology, Volume 6), Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 75–105
• American Library Association, Social Responsibilities Round Table, Hunger, Homelessness & Poverty Task Force. (n.d.). Resources. Retrieved December 13, 2010
• Barry, Ellen, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040617073529/http://www.seiu509.org/somchai.cfm "A Refugee's Triumph Over Desolation"], Boston Globe, December 28, 2003.
• Baumohl, Jim, (editor), "Homelessness in America", Oryx Press, Phoenix, 1996. {{ISBN|0-89774-869-7}}
• Bley, D. (January 19, 2011). Raising the visibility of family homelessness in Washington state
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070227134513/http://www.uams.edu/dhsr/faculty/booth.htm Booth, Brenda M.], Sullivan, J. Greer, [https://web.archive.org/web/20060901131104/http://www.hsrcenter.ucla.edu/people/koegel.shtml Koegel, Paul], Burnam, M. Audrey, [https://www.rand.org/pubs/reprints/RP1147/ "Vulnerability Factors for Homelessness Associated with Substance Dependence in a Community Sample of Homeless Adults"], RAND Research Report. Originally published in: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070103024401/http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/00952990.asp American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse], v. 28, no. 3, 2002, pp. 429–452.
• Borchard, Kurt, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LBxsVUKOAZMC Homeless in Las Vegas: Stories from the Street]{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, University of Nevada Press, 2011
• Borchard, Kurt, [https://books.google.com/books?id=igkOYcJ8LA0C The Word on the Street: Homeless Men in Las Vegas]{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, University of Nevada Press, 2005
• Burke, Kerry, Fox, Alison, Martinez, Jose, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930230414/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/nydailynews/access/1196448321.html?dids=1196448321:1196448321&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jan+18,+2007&author=&pub=New+York+Daily+News&edition=&startpage=2&desc=HOBO+MADNESS+HITS+MAD.+AVE.+BIZMAN+SUES+HOMELESS+FOR+$1M "Hobo Madness hits Mad. Ave.: Bizman Sues Homeless for $"], New York Daily News, January 18, 2007.
• [http://www.mccormack.umb.edu/csp/index.jsp Center for Social Policy], University of Massachusetts Boston, [http://scholarworks.umb.edu/csp_pubs/29/ "Hard Numbers, Hard Times: Homeless Individuals in Massachusetts Emergency Shelters 1999–2003"], July 2004.
• Coalition for the Homeless (New York), [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006112323/http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/downloads/NYCHomelessnessHistory.pdf "A History of Modern Homelessness in New York City"].
• {{cite book |last1 = Colburn |first1 = Gregg |last2 = Aldern |first2 = Clayton Page |year = 2022 |title = Homelessness Is a Housing Problem: How Structural Factors Explain U.S. Patterns |place = Oakland, CA |publisher = University of California Press |isbn = 978-0520383760 }}
• Crimaldi, Laura, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071001064307/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/bostonherald/access/1185709481.html?dids=1185709481:1185709481&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Dec+26,+2006&author=LAURA+CRIMALDI&pub=Boston+Herald&edition=&startpage=6&desc=Cardinal+spends+time+with+homeless "Cardinal spends time with homeless"], Boston Herald, December 26, 2006.
• Crimaldi, Laura, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071001050114/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/bostonherald/access/1216074001.html?dids=1216074001:1216074001&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Feb+14,+2007&author=LAURA+CRIMALDI&pub=Boston+Herald&edition=&startpage=10&desc=Homeless+advocates+urge+no+diversion+of+shelter+funds "Homeless Advocates Urge no Diversion of Shelter Funds"], Boston Herald, Wednesday, February 14, 2007.
• Crimaldi, Laura, [http://bostonherald.com/news/regional/general/view.bg?articleid=1120408 "Champion for homeless fights for life"], Boston Herald, Sunday, September 21, 2008. About Richard Weintraub, Director of Homeless Services for Boston, Massachusetts. The article has some modern history of homelessness in Boston.
• CSPTech, University of Massachusetts, Boston, [http://www.mccormack.umb.edu/csp/publications/2001%20family%20report.pdf "Characteristics of Homeless Families Accessing Massachusetts Emergency Shelters 1999–2001"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060917222028/http://www.mccormack.umb.edu/csp/publications/2001%20family%20report.pdf |date=September 17, 2006 }}, April 2003.
• Culhane, Dennis, [https://web.archive.org/web/20061106120602/http://www.igs.berkeley.edu/events/homeless/papers/CulhanePresentation/ "Responding to Homelessness: Policies and Politics"], 2001.
• deMause, Neil, [https://web.archive.org/web/20061020152117/http://www1.villagevoice.com/news/0625%2Cdemause%2C73594%2C5.html "Out of the Shelter, Into the Fire: New city program for homeless: Keep your job or keep your apartment"], The Village Voice, New York, June 20, 2006.
• DePastino, Todd, "Citizen Hobo: How a Century of Homelessness Shaped America", 2003. {{ISBN|0-226-14378-3}}
• Desjarlais, Robert R., [https://books.google.com/books?id=vmcQzxkON6oC Shelter blues: sanity and selfhood among the homeless], University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997. A particular study of homeless people in the Boston area.
• Dreier, Peter; Appelbaum, Richard, "American Nightmare: Homelessness", Challenge: The Magazine of Economic Affairs, v.34, n.2, March/April 1991, pp. 46–52.
• {{cite book |last = Flowers |first = R. Barri |year = 2010 |title = Street Kids: the Lives of Runaway and Thrownaway Teens |location = Jefferson, NC |publisher = McFarland |isbn = 978-0-7864-5663-5 }}
• Freeman, Richard B.; Hall, Brian, [https://web.archive.org/web/20171019100659/http://www.skylinecollege.edu/library/PermanentHomelessnessInAmerica-Freeman-Hall.pdf "PERMANENT HOMELESSNESS IN AMERICA?"], Working Paper No. 2013, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts, September 1986
• Friedman, Donna Haig, et al., [http://www.mccormack.umb.edu/centers/csp/publications/HPI_3_Year_FINAL_Homelessness_June07.pdf "Preventing Homelessness and Promoting Housing Stability : A Comparative Analysis"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720085815/http://www.mccormack.umb.edu/centers/csp/publications/HPI_3_Year_FINAL_Homelessness_June07.pdf |date=July 20, 2011 }}, The Boston Foundation and UMASS/Boston Center for Social Policy, June 2007.
• Gatto, Nora, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927021358/http://www.niagara.edu/pr/eaglefall2006.htm "Vincent"], Niagara University, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070522230739/http://www.niagara.edu/pr/Eaglemainpage.htm Eagle Alumni Magazine], Fall 2006, p. 12.
• Hoch, Charles; Slayton, Robert A., New Homeless and Old: Community and the Skid Row Hotel, Philadelphia : Temple University Press, 1989. {{ISBN|0-87722-600-8}}
• Human Rights Watch. (2010). My so-called emancipation from foster care to homelessness for California youth. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/us0410webwcover.pdf
• Institute for Governmental Studies, Berkeley, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070302013925/http://www.igs.berkeley.edu/events/homeless/ "Urban Homelessness & Public Policy Solutions: A One-Day Conference"], January 22, 2001.
• {{cite journal |last1 = Kadi |first1 = J. |last2 = Ronald |first2 = R. |year = 2016 |title = Undermining housing affordability for New York's low-income households: The role of policy reform and rental sector restructuring |url = https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/8475833/Chapter_2_New_York_accepted_manuscript.pdf |journal = Critical Social Policy |volume = 36 |issue = 2 |pages = 265–266 |doi = 10.1177/0261018315624172 |hdl = 11245.1/19c94383-fa06-4264-912b-240212d979e6 |s2cid = 155880344 |hdl-access = free }}
• Kahn, Ric, [http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2006/12/17/buried_in_obscurity/ "Buried in obscurity: Found dead on Causeway Street in June, his body awaits a nameless final rest"], Boston Globe, December 17, 2006. A story about a Beacon Hill church pausing to remember the recently departed homeless.
• Katz, Celeste, [http://www.nydailynews.com/blogs/dailypolitics/2012/03/public-advocate-bill-de-blasio-to-bbh-global-keep-your-homeless-hotspot-stunt- "Public Advocate Bill de Blasio To BBH Global: Keep Your "Homeless Hotspot" Stunt Out Of NYC"], The New York Daily News, March 13, 2012
• Katz, Jessica Ilana, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604235559/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/42829/52993655.pdf?sequence=1 "Homelessness, Crime, Mental Illness, and Substance Abuse: A Core Population with Multiple Social Service Needs"], Department of Urban Planning and Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 2003
• Keen, J. (December 13, 2010). [http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2010-12-13-libraries13_ST_N.htm Libraries welcome homeless to 'community living rooms.'] USA Today Retrieved December 13, 2010
• Knight, H. (January 11, 2010). [https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Library-adds-social-worker-to-assist-homeless-3275950.php Library adds social worker to assist homeless]. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved from [http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Library-adds-social-worker-to-assist-homeless-3275950.php sfgate.com]
• {{cite book |author = Koebel, C. Theodore |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kHYjdbfQDNUC |title = Shelter and Society: Theory, Research, and Policy for Nonprofit Housing |publisher = SUNY Press |year = 1998 |isbn = 978-0-7914-3789-6 }}
• Kuhlman, Thomas L., Psychology on the streets : mental health practice with homeless persons, New York : J. Wiley & Sons, 1994. {{ISBN|0-471-55243-7}}
• Kusmer, Kenneth L., [https://books.google.com/books?id=xpJ3ME7vHuEC "Down and Out, On the Road: The Homeless in American History"], Oxford University Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0-19-504778-8}}
• Leeder, K. (December 1, 2010). Welcoming the Homeless into Libraries. In the Library with the Lead Pipe. Retrieved from [http://www.inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org/2010/welcoming-the-homeless-into-libraries/ Welcoming the Homeless into Libraries – In the Library with the Lead Pipe]
• {{cite book |editor = Levinson, David |title = Encyclopedia of Homelessness |location = Thousand Oaks, California |publisher = Sage Publications |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0-7619-2751-8 }}
• {{citation |last = Lowe |first = Eugene T. |date = December 13, 2016 |title = The U.S. Conference of Mayors' Report on Hunger and Homelessness: A Status Report on Homelessness and Hunger in America's Cities |location = Washington, DC |publisher = U.S. Conference of Mayors |url = https://endhomelessness.atavist.com/mayorsreport2016 |access-date = September 16, 2017 }}
• Maharidge, Dale. "[https://www.thenation.com/article/society/how-america-chose-homelessness/ How the United States Chose to Become a Country of Homelessness]." The Nation.
• Massachusetts Coalition for the Homeless, [http://www.mahomeless.org/ "Down & Out Resource Manual"], 2005.
• [http://www.mass.gov/?pageID=ehedterminal&L=3&L0=Home&L1=Economic+Analysis&L2=Key+Initiatives&sid=Ehed&b=terminalcontent&f=dhcd_hc_hc&csid=Ehed The Massachusetts Commission to End Homelessness], [http://www.mass.gov/Ehed/docs/dhcd/hc/finalreport2008.doc "Report of the Special Commission Relative to Ending Homelessness in the Commonwealth"], Boston, Massachusetts, December 28, 2007 (January 2008).
• Massachusetts, Commonwealth of, [http://www.mass.gov/Eeohhs2/docs//homeless/g_finalechreport.pdf "Housing the Homeless: a more effective approach"], [http://www.mass.gov/homelesscommission/ Governor's Executive Commission for Homeless Services Coordination], November 2003.
• Morton, Margaret, "The Tunnel: The Underground Homeless of New York City", Yale University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-300-06559-0}}
• National Coalition for the Homeless, [https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED317645 "American Nightmare: A Decade of Homelessness in the United States"]{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, December 1989
• National Coalition for the Homeless. (July 2009) [http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/crimreport/index.html "Homes Not Handcuffs: The Criminalization of Homelessness in U.S. Cities"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908163420/http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/crimreport/index.html |date=September 8, 2023 }}. Retrieved December 13, 2010,.
• {{citation |author = National Coalition for the Homeless and The National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty |date = January 9, 2006 |title = A Dream Denied: The Criminalization of Homelessness in U.S. Cities |location = Washington, DC |publisher = Authors |url = http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/crimreport/report.pdf |access-date = September 16, 2017 |archive-date = October 27, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191027051219/http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/crimreport/report.pdf |url-status = dead }}
• Nieto G., Gittelman M., Abad A. (2008). [http://www.psychosocial.com/IJPR_12/Homeless_Mentally_Ill_Nieto.html "Homeless Mentally Ill Persons: A bibliography review"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506130241/http://www.psychosocial.com/IJPR_12/Homeless_Mentally_Ill_Nieto.html |date=May 6, 2008 }}, International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation. 12(2)
• O'Flaherty, Brendan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcp4Bna6pFEC "Making room : the economics of homelessness"], Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-674-54342-4}}
• Quigley, John M.; Raphael, Steven, [http://urbanpolicy.berkeley.edu/pdf/QR_EJHP01PB.pdf "The Economics of Homelessness: The Evidence from North America"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120131131/http://urbanpolicy.berkeley.edu/pdf/qr_ejhp01pb.pdf |date=January 20, 2022 }}, European Journal of Housing Policy 1(3), 2001, 323–336
• Radin, Charles A., [http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2006/12/18/on_the_street_a_quiet_outreach_of_kindness/ "On the street, a quiet outreach of kindness: Little Brothers lift the less fortunate"], Boston Globe, December 18, 2006.
• Riis, Jacob, [http://www.yale.edu/amstud/inforev/riis/title.html How the Other Half Lives], 1890.
• Rossi, Peter H., Down and Out in America: The Origins of Homelessness, University of Chicago Press, 1991.
• Russell, Jenna, [http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2009/08/09/in_their_shoes/ "In their shoes: To better understand the plight of the homeless, Harvard student takes to the streets"], Boston Globe, August 9, 2009
• Ryan, Charles V., [https://web.archive.org/web/20080828065918/http://www.usich.gov/library/HomesWithinReach.pdf "Homes Within Reach: Springfield's 10-year plan to end long term homelessness"], City of Springfield, Massachusetts, Mayor Charles V. Ryan, January 2007.
• Sanburn, Josh., [https://nation.time.com/2013/10/10/begging-bans-around-u-s-face-challenges-in-court/ Bans Around U.S. Face Challenges in Court], October 10, 2013.
• Schneider, P. (November 17, 2010). Can remodeled library attract public, suit homeless? The Cap Times. Retrieved from [http://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/govt-and-politics/article_b6913072-f1c9-11df-9464-001cc4c002e0.html Can remodeled library attract public, suit homeless?]
• [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/russell_schutt Schutt, Russell K.], PhD, Professor, University of Massachusetts Boston.
• Schutt, Russell K., et al., [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/russell_schutt/Boston%20Homeless%201986-1987.htm "Boston's Homeless, 1986–1987: Change and Continuity"], 1987.
• Schutt, Russell K., [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/russell_schutt/Working%20with%20the%20Homeless.htm Working with the Homeless: the Backgrounds, Activities and Beliefs of Shelter Staff], 1988.
• Schutt, Russell, K., [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/russell_schutt/Homeless%20Adults%20in%20Boston%20in%201990.htm "Homeless Adults in Boston in 1990: A Two-Shelter Profile"], 1990.
• Schutt, Russell K., Garrett, Gerald R., [https://www.springer.com/west/home/generic/search/results?SGWID=4-40109-22-33254028-0 "Responding to the Homeless: Policy and Practice"], Topics in Social Psychiatry, 1992. {{ISBN|0-306-44076-8}}
• Schutt, Russell K., Byrne, Francine, et al., [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/russell_schutt/Transitional%20Work%20Study.htm "City of Boston Homeless Services: Employment & Training for Homeless Persons"], 1995.
• Schutt, Russell K., Feldman, James, et al., [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/russell_schutt/Homeless%20Persons%20Residential%20Preferences.htm "Homeless Persons' Residential Preferences and Needs: A Pilot Survey of Persons with Severe Mental Illness in Boston Mental Health and Generic Shelters"], 2004.
• Sommer, Heidi, [https://web.archive.org/web/20060903101612/http://www.igs.berkeley.edu/events/homeless/NewHomelessnessBook1.pdf "Homelessness in Urban America: a Review of the Literature"], 2001
• St. Mungo's organisation (UK), [http://www.mungos.org/facts/history.shtml "A Brief History of Homelessness"]
• Stern, H. (1992). [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-03-22-mn-7262-story.html "Aimless and homeless, he wins fortune in court lawsuit: Library who banned him, police who harassed him, wish they hadn't—to the tune of $250,000"]. Los Angeles Times Retrieved November 18, 2010.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20101128181850/http://publiceducation.org/portals/nclb/homeless/definition.asp Stewart B. McKinney Act, 42 U.S.C. § 11301, et seq.] (1994). Retrieved December 1, 2010.
• Stringer, Lee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uX2Ol9BnT_gC Grand Central Winter: Stories from the Street], 1st ed., New York : Seven Stories Press, 1998. {{ISBN|1-888363-57-6}}
• Szantos, Ruth [http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/phnxlwrv4&div=21&id=&page=] Excuse Me- Can You Spare Some Change in This Economy- A Socio-Economic History of Anti-Panhandling Laws, 2010
• Toth, Jennifer, The Mole People: Life in the Tunnels Beneath New York City, 1993. {{ISBN|1-55652-190-1}}
• United States Conference of Mayors, [https://web.archive.org/web/20081230172249/http://www.usmayors.org/hungersurvey/2005/HH2005FINAL.pdf "Hunger and Homelessness Survey"], December 2005.
• United States Department of Health and Human Services, [http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/homelessness/strategies03/ "Ending Chronic Homelessness: Strategies for Action"], Report from the Secretary's Work Group on Ending Chronic Homelessness, March 2003.
• University of Vermont, [http://www.uvm.edu/~uvmpr/vq/VQFall02/Bed.html "It starts With a Bed: UVM alums Richard Weintraub & Lyndia Downie lead fight to break cycle of homelessness in Boston], Vermont Quarterly, Fall 2002.
• U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (2009). [https://web.archive.org/web/20121002214604/http://www.hudhre.info/documents/5thHomelessAssessmentReport.pdf 2009 Annual homeless assessment report to congress]. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
• Vissing, Yvonne [http://w3.salemstate.edu/~yvissing/ "Out of Sight, Out of Mind: Homeless Children and Families in Small-Town America"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902163037/http://w3.salemstate.edu/~yvissing/ |date=September 2, 2006 }}, 1996.
• Vissing, Yvonne, [https://web.archive.org/web/20030422021059/http://www.forusa.org/Fellowship/Mar-Apr_03/Vissing.html "The $ubtle War Against Children", Fellowship], March/April 2003
• Vladeck, Bruce, R., and the Committee on Health Care for Homeless People, Institute of Medicine, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218238/ "Homelessness, Health, and Human needs"], National Academies Press, 1988
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20081011035440/http://www.usm.maine.edu/swo/faculty/david-wagner.html Wagner, David]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=lq1jpP57r_4C Checkerboard Square: Culture and Resistance in a Homeless Community]{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (Boulder: Westview Press), 1993. {{ISBN|0-8133-1585-9}}
• Ward, C. (2007). What they didn't teach us in library school; how the library became Heartbreak Hotel. TomDispatch.com. Retrieved from [http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/174799/ward_how_the_public_library_became_heartbreak_hotel Chip Ward, How the Public Library Became Heartbreak Hotel]
• Woolhouse, Megan, "Homes for the holiday: Housing agency, nonprofit team up to help the homeless", Boston Globe, December 25, 2007.
• Wortham, Jenna, [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/technology/homeless-as-wi-fi-transmitters-creates-a-stir-in-austin.html "Use of Homeless as Internet Hot Spots Backfires on Marketer"], The New York Times, March 12, 2012
• Wright, James D., [https://books.google.com/books?id=LInRJu0O7mQC "Address Unknown: the homeless in America"], New York : A. de Gruyter, Edition: 3, 1989

• [https://stateline.org/category/housing-shortage/ Housing shortage articles] by Stateline
• [http://aspe.hhs.gov/homeless/ Homelessness site] by United States Department of Health and Human Services
• [https://www.issuelab.org/issues/housing-and-homelessness Housing and Homelessness research] by IssueLab
• [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-45442596 Homeless in US: A deepening crisis on the streets of America]. BBC. October 8, 2018
• [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/may/29/paul-boden-america-homelessness-crisis 'I've never seen so much vitriol': activist Paul Boden on America's homelessness crisis]. The Guardian. May 29, 2023.

{{US housing by state}}

{{Homelessness in the United States}}

{{Homelessness|state=expanded}}

{{North America topic|Homelessness in}}

{{United States topics}}

{{Social class}}

{{World topic|Homelessness in|noredlinks=yes}}

{{authority control}}

Category:1870s establishments in the United States

United States