Homo rhodesiensis#Bodo cranium

{{main|Homo heidelbergensis#Africa}}

File:Broken Hill Skull (Replica01).jpg

File:Rhodesian Men.jpg (1922)]]

A number of morphologically comparable fossil remains came to light in East Africa (Bodo, Ndutu, Eyasi, Ileret) and North Africa (Salé, Rabat, Dar-es-Soltane, Djbel Irhoud, Sidi Aberrahaman, Tighenif) during the 20th century.{{cite web |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/99/3/1134.full.pdf |title= The evolution and development of cranial form in Homo |publisher= Department of Anthropology, Harvard University |access-date=December 9, 2015}}

• Kabwe 1, also called the "Broken Hill skull" or "Rhodesian Man", was assigned by Arthur Smith Woodward in 1921 as the type specimen for Homo rhodesiensis; most contemporary scientists forego the taxon "rhodesiensis" altogether and assign it to Homo heidelbergensis.Hublin, J.-J. (2013), "The Middle Pleistocene Record. On the Origin of Neandertals, Modern Humans and Others" in: R. David Begun (ed.), A Companion to Paleoanthropology, John Wiley, pp. 517–537 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=oIoT1RcFeCwC&pg=PT375 p. 523]). The cranium was discovered in Broken Hill lead mine in Mutwe Wa Nsofu Area of Northern Rhodesia (now Kabwe, Zambia) on June 17, 1921{{cite web |url=https://www.daily-mail.co.zm/zambia-resolute-recovering-broken-hill-man-britain/ |title=Zambia resolute on recovering Broken Hill Man from Britain – Zambia Daily Mail |publisher=Daily-mail.co.zm |date=2015-01-10 |access-date=2018-06-04 |archive-date=2018-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301170111/https://www.daily-mail.co.zm/zambia-resolute-recovering-broken-hill-man-britain/ |url-status=dead }} by two miners. In addition to the cranium, an upper jaw from another individual, a sacrum, a tibia, and two femur fragments were also found.
• Bodo cranium, a 600,000-year-old{{cite web |url=http://www.fossilized.org/Human_paleontology/_sites_expanded.php?primy_key=245 |title= Bodo – Paleoanthropology site information |publisher= Fossilized org |access-date=December 9, 2015}} fossil was found in 1976 by members of an expedition led by Jon Kalb at Bodo D'ar in the Awash River valley of Ethiopia.{{cite web |url=http://www.skullsunlimited.com/record_species.php?id=3910 |title=Bodo Skull and Jaw |publisher=Skulls Unlimited |access-date=December 9, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208061300/http://www.skullsunlimited.com/record_species.php?id=3910 |archive-date=2015-12-08 |url-status=dead}} It was discovered by the Rift Valley Research Mission which conducted a number of surveys that led to the findings of Acheulean tools and animal fossils alongside the Bodo Cranium.{{Cite journal |last1=Conroy |first1=Glenn C. |last2=Weber |first2=Gerhard W. |last3=Seidler |first3=Horst |last4=Recheis |first4=Wolfgang |last5=Zur Nedden |first5=Dieter |last6=Haile Mariam |first6=Jara |year=2000 |title=UC Berkeley Library Proxy Login |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=111–118 |doi=10.1002/1096-8644(200009)113:1<111::aid-ajpa10>3.0.co;2-x |pmid=10954624}} The first specimen was discovered by Alemayhew Asfaw and Charles Smart, who found a lower face. Two weeks later, Paul Whitehead and Craig Wood found the upper portion of the face. Pieces of the cranium were discovered along the surface of one of the dry branches of the Awash River in Ethiopia. The cranium, artifacts, and other animal fossils were found over a relatively large area of medium sand, and only a few of the tools were found near the cranium.{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Tim D. |date=April 1986 |title=Cut marks on the Bodo cranium: A case of prehistoric defleshing |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=503–509 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330690410 |issn=0002-9483 |pmid=3087212}}{{Cite journal |last1=Kalb |first1=Jon E. |last2=Wood |first2=Craig B. |last3=Smart |first3=Charles |last4=Oswald |first4=Elizabeth B. |last5=Mabrete |first5=Assefa |last6=Tebedge |first6=Sleshi |last7=Whitehead |first7=Paul |date=1980-01-01 |title=Preliminary geology and palaeontology of the Bodo D'ar hominid Site, Afar, Ethiopia |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |volume=30 |pages=107–120 |bibcode=1980PPP....30..107K |doi=10.1016/0031-0182(80)90052-8 |issn=0031-0182}} Although the skull is most similar to those of Kabwe, Woodward's nomenclature was discontinued and its discoverers attributed it to H. heidelbergensis.{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1233764/Bodo?anchor=ref892244 |title= Bodo fossil |publisher= Britannica Encyclopedia |access-date=December 9, 2015}} It has features that represent a transition between H. ergaster/erectus and H. sapiens.{{cite web |url=http://nutcrackerman.com/2015/04/07/meet-bodo-and-herto/ |title= Meet Bodo and Herto There is some discussion around the species assigned to Bodo |publisher= Nutcracker Man |date=April 7, 2015 |access-date=December 9, 2015}}
• Ndutu cranium,{{cite journal|author=Rightmire, G. Philip|year= 2005|title=The Lake Ndutu cranium and early Homo sapiens in Africa|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=61 |issue=2|pages=245–254|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330610214|pmid=6410925}} discovered from Lake Ndutu in northern Tanzania, is around 320,000 to 600,000 years old.{{Cite journal |last=Reiner |first=Whitney B. |last2=Masao |first2=Fidelis |last3=Sholts |first3=Sabrina B. |last4=Songita |first4=Agustino Venance |last5=Stanistreet |first5=Ian |last6=Stollhofen |first6=Harald |last7=Taylor |first7=R.e. |last8=Hlusko |first8=Leslea J. |date=2017 |title=OH 83: A new early modern human fossil cranium from the Ndutu beds of Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.23292 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |language=en |volume=164 |issue=3 |pages=533–545 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23292 |pmid=28786473}} In 1976 Ronald J. Clarke classified it as H. erectus and it has generally been viewed that way, although points of similarity to H. sapiens have also been recognized. After comparative studies with similar finds in Africa allocation to an African subspecies of H. sapiens was considered most appropriate by Phillip Rightmire.{{cite journal |title= The Lake Ndutu cranium and early Homo sapiens in Africa |date= June 3, 1983 |pmid=6410925 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330610214 |volume=61 |issue= 2 |journal=Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. |pages=245–54 |author=Rightmire GP}} An indirect cranial capacity estimate suggests 1100 ml. Its supratoral sulcus morphology and the presence of protuberance as suggested by Rightmire "give the Ndutu occiput an appearance which is also unlike that of Homo erectus". And in a 1989 publication Clarke concluded: "It is assigned to archaic H. sapiens on the basis of its expanded parietal and occipital regions of the brain".{{cite web |url=http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Clarke-1990-JHE-Ndutu.pdf |title= The Ndutu cranium and the origin of Homo sapiens – R. J. Clarke |publisher= American Museum of Natural History |date= November 27, 1989 |access-date=December 9, 2015}} But Stinger (1986) pointed out that a thickened iliac pillar is typical for H. erectus.The Evolution of Homo erectus: Comparative Anatomical Studies of an Extinct Human Species By G. Philip Rightmire Published by Cambridge University Press, 1993 {{ISBN|0-521-44998-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-44998-4}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=edFD6el38mAC] In 2016, Chris Stringer classified the cranium as belonging to H. heidelbergensis/H. rhodesiensis (a species considered to be intermediate between H. erectus and H. sapiens) rather than as early H. sapiens, but considers it to display a "more sapiens-like zygomaxillary morphology" than certain other examples of H. rhodesiensis.{{cite journal|pmid=27298468|pmc=4920294|year=2016|last1=Stringer|first1=C.|title=The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=371|issue=1698|pages=20150237|doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0237}}

• The Saldanha cranium found in 1953 in South Africa, and estimated at around 500,000 years old, was subject to at least three taxonomic revisions from 1955 to 1996.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=440TmWXToLAC&q=Homo+rhodesiensis&pg=PT1354 |title= Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, 2 Volume Set |date= 31 March 2011|isbn= 9781444342475 |access-date=December 9, 2015|last1= Wood |first1= Bernard |publisher= John Wiley & Sons }}

{{Human timeline}}

This specimen has an unusually large cranial capacity for its age that is estimated at around 1250 cc (in the range between ~1,200–1,325 cc)

within the (lower) range of modern Homo sapiens.Milner, Richard. "Cranial Capacity." The Encyclopedia of Evolution: Humanity's Search For Its Origins. New York: Holt, 1990: 98. "Living humans have a cranial capacity ranging from about 950 cc to 1800 cc, with the average about 1400 cc."

The cranium includes the face, much of the frontal bone, parts of the midvault and the base anterior to the foramen magnum. The cranial length, width and height are 21 cm (8.3 in), 15.87 cm (6.2 in) and 19.05 cm (7.5 in) respectively. Researchers have suggested that Bodo butchered animals because Acheulean hand axes and cleavers, along with animal bones, were found at the site. Cuts on the Bodo cranium show the earliest evidence of removal of flesh immediately after the death of an individual using a stone tool. The findings of symmetrical cut marks with specific patterns and directionality on the cranium serve as strong evidence that de-fleshing was done purposefully for mortuary practices and represents the earliest evidence of non-utilitarian mortuary practices.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4MvPbrHbCEC&q=bodo+craniums+cut+marks+first+evidence+of+defleshing&pg=PA605|title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial|last1=Tarlow|first1=Sarah|last2=Stutz|first2=Liv Nilsson|date=2013|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0199569069}} The cut marks were located "laterally among the maxilla" causing speculation among researchers that the specific reason for de-fleshing was to remove the mandible.{{Cite journal|last1=Pickering|first1=Travis Rayne|last2=White|first2=Tim D.|last3=Toth|first3=Nicholas|date=2000|title=Brief communication: Cutmarks on a Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Sterkfontein, South Africa|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=111|issue=4|pages=579–584|doi=10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(200004)111:4<579::aid-ajpa12>3.0.co;2-y|pmid=10727975|issn=1096-8644}}

File:Bodo NMNH.jpg]]

The front of the Bodo cranium is very broad and supports large supraorbital structures. The supraorbital torus projects and is heavily constructed, especially in the central parts of the cranium. The glabella is rounded and projects strongly. Like H. erectus, the brain case is low and archaic in appearance. The vault bones are also thick like H. erectus specimens. Due to the large cranial capacity, there is a wider midvault which includes signs of parietal bossing as well as a high contour of the temporal squama. The parietal length can’t be accurately determined because that section of the specimen is incomplete. Though the mastoid is missing, insights regarding the specimen can be determined using fragments from the individual collected at the scene in 1981. The cranium’s parietal walls expand relative to the bitemporal width in a way that is characteristic of modern humans. The squamosal suture has a high arch which is present in modern human craniums as well.{{Cite journal |last=Rightmire |first=Philip G. |date=July 1996 |title=The human cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia: evidence for speciation in the Middle Pleistocene? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1996.0046 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=21–39 |doi=10.1006/jhev.1996.0046 |issn=0047-2484}}

The cranium has an unusual appearance, which has led to debates over its taxonomy. It displays both primitive and derived features, such as a cranial capacity more similar to modern humans and a projecting supraorbital torus more like H. erectus.{{Cite journal|last=Rightmire|first=Philip G.|date=1996-07-01|title=The human cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia: evidence for speciation in the Middle Pleistocene?|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=31|issue=1|pages=21–39|doi=10.1006/jhev.1996.0046|issn=0047-2484}}{{Cite journal|last=Rightmire|first=G. Philip|date=2001-01-01|title=Patterns of hominid evolution and dispersal in the Middle Pleistocene|journal=Quaternary International|volume=75|issue=1|pages=77–84|doi=10.1016/S1040-6182(00)00079-3|bibcode=2001QuInt..75...77R|issn=1040-6182}}{{Cite journal|last=Bräuer|first=Günter|date=2008|title=The origin of modern anatomy: By speciation or intraspecific evolution?|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews|volume=17|issue=1|pages=22–37|doi=10.1002/evan.20157|s2cid=53328127|issn=1520-6505|doi-access=free}} Bodo and other Mid-Pleistocene hominin fossils appear to represent a lineage between H. erectus and anatomically modern humans, although its exact location in the human evolutionary tree is still uncertain.{{Cite journal|last=Rightmire|first=G. Philip|date=2013-09-01|title=Homo erectus and Middle Pleistocene hominins: Brain size, skull form, and species recognition|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=65|issue=3|pages=223–252|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.04.008|pmid=23850294|issn=0047-2484}}{{Cite journal|last1=Krovitz|first1=Gail|last2=McBratney|first2=Brandeis M.|last3=Lieberman|first3=Daniel E.|date=2002-02-05|title=The evolution and development of cranial form in Homo sapiens|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=99|issue=3|pages=1134–1139|doi=10.1073/pnas.022440799|issn=0027-8424|pmid=11805284|pmc=122156|bibcode=2002PNAS...99.1134L|doi-access=free}} Due to the similarities to both Homo erectus and modern humans, it has been postulated that the Bodo cranium, as well as other members of H. heidelbergensis were part of a group of hominins that evolved distinct from H. erectus early in the Middle Pleistocene. Despite the similarities, there is still a question of where exactly H. heidelbergensis evolved. The increased encephalization seen in fossils like the Bodo cranium is thought to have been a driving force in the speciation of anatomically modern humans.{{Cite journal|last=Rightmire|first=G. Philip|date=January 2012|title=The evolution of cranial form in mid-Pleistocene Homo|journal=South African Journal of Science|volume=108|issue=3–4|pages=68–77|issn=0038-2353|doi=10.4102/sajs.v108i3/4.719|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Conroy|first1=Glenn C.|last2=Weber|first2=Gerhard W.|last3=Seidler|first3=Horst|last4=Recheis|first4=Wolfgang|last5=Nedden|first5=Dieter Zur|last6=Mariam|first6=Jara Haile|date=2000|title=Endocranial capacity of the Bodo cranium determined from three-dimensional computed tomography|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=113|issue=1|pages=111–118|doi=10.1002/1096-8644(200009)113:1<111::aid-ajpa10>3.0.co;2-x|pmid=10954624|issn=1096-8644}}

Both the Bodo cranium and the Kabwe cranium share a number of similarities. Both have cranial capacities similar to, but on the low end of the range of modern humans (1250 cc vs 1230 cc). Both craniums have a very large supraorbital torus. These two features together suggest that they are a link between H. erectus and H. sapiens.{{Cite journal |last1=Balzeau |first1=A. |last2=Buck |first2=Laura |last3=Albessard |first3=L. |last4=Becam |first4=G. |last5=Grimmaud-Herve |first5=D. |last6=Rae |first6=T. C. |last7=Stringer |first7=C. B. |date=2017-12-08 |title=The internal cranial anatomy of the Middle Pleistocene Broken Hill 1 cranium |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/270104 |language=en |doi=10.17863/CAM.16919}} The morphology and the taxonomy are most similar to other specimens of type H. heidelbergensis.{{Cite journal |last=Rightmire |first=Philip G. |date=1996-07-01 |title=The human cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia: evidence for speciation in the Middle Pleistocene? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248496900469 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=21–39 |doi=10.1006/jhev.1996.0046 |issn=0047-2484}} Both the Bodo and Kabwe specimens can be described as archaic because they retain certain features in common with Homo erectus. However, both exhibit important differences from Homo erectus in their anatomy, such as the contour of their parietals, the shape of their temporal bones, the cranial base, and the morphology of their nose and palate. While there are many similarities, there are a few differences between the specimens, including the entire brow of the Bodo cranium, particularly the lateral segments, which are less thick than the Kabwe specimen.

In 2021, Canadian anthropologist Mirjana Roksandic and colleagues recommended the complete dissolution of H. heidelbergensis and H. rhodesiensis, as the name rhodesiensis honours English diamond magnate Cecil Rhodes who disenfranchised the black population in southern Africa. They classified all European H. heidelbergensis as H. neanderthalensis, and synonymised H. rhodesiensis with a new species they named H. bodoensis which includes all African specimens, and potentially some from the Levant and the Balkans which have no Neanderthal-derived traits (namely Ceprano, Mala Balanica, HaZore'a and Nadaouiyeh Aïn Askar). H. bodoensis is supposed to represent the immediate ancestor of modern humans, but does not include the last common ancestor of modern humans and Neanderthals. They suggested the confusing morphology of the Middle Pleistocene was caused by periodic H. bodoensis migration events into Europe following population collapses after glacial cycles, interbreeding with surviving indigenous populations.{{cite journal |last1=Roksandic |first1=M. |last2=Radović |first2=P. |last3=Wu |first3=X.-J. |last4=Bae |first4=C.J. |year=2021 |title=Resolving the "muddle in the middle": The case for Homo bodoensis sp. nov. |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=20–29 |doi=10.1002/evan.21929 |pmid=34710249 |pmc=9297855 |doi-access=free}} Their taxonomic recommendations were rejected by Stringer and others as they failed to explain how exactly their proposals would resolve anything, in addition to violating nomenclatural rules.{{cite journal |last1=Delson |first1=E. |last2=Stringer |first2=C. |year=2022 |title=The naming of Homo bodoensis by Roksandic and colleagues does not resolve issues surrounding Middle Pleistocene human evolution |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=233–236 |doi=10.1002/evan.21950 |pmc= |pmid=35758557|s2cid=250070886 }}{{cite journal |first1=E. |last1=Sarmiento |first2=M. |last2=Pickford |year=2022 |title=Muddying the muddle in the middle even more |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=237–239 |doi=10.1002/evan.21952|pmid=35758530 |s2cid=250071605 }}

• List of fossil sites
• List of hominina fossils

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{{Reflist|30em}}

• {{cite journal|author=Woodward, Arthur Smith|year=1921|title=A New Cave Man from Rhodesia, South Africa|journal=Nature|volume=108|pages=371–372|doi=10.1038/108371a0|issue=2716|bibcode=1921Natur.108..371W|doi-access=free}}
• {{cite journal|author=Singer Robert R. and J. Wymer|year=1968|title=Archaeological Investigation at the Saldanha Skull Site in South Africa|journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin|volume=23 |issue=3|pages=63–73|doi=10.2307/3888485|publisher=The South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 91|jstor=3888485}}
• {{cite journal|author=Murrill, Rupert I.|year= 1975|title=A comparison of the Rhodesian and Petralona upper jaws in relation to other Pleistocene hominids|journal=Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie|volume=66|issue= 2|pages=176–187|doi= 10.1127/zma/66/1975/176|pmid= 806185|s2cid= 3097781}}.
• {{cite book | author = Murrill, Rupert Ivan | year = 1981 | title = Petralona Man. A Descriptive and Comparative Study, with New Information on Rhodesian Man | location = Springfield, Illinois | editor = Ed. Charles C. Thomas | isbn = 0-398-04550-X | publisher = Thomas}}
• {{cite journal|author=Rightmire, G. Philip|year= 2005|title=The Lake Ndutu cranium and early Homo sapiens in Africa|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=61 |issue=2|pages=245–254|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330610214|pmid=6410925}}.
• {{cite journal|author=Asfaw, Berhane|author-link=Berhane Asfaw|year= 2005|title=A new hominid parietal from Bodo, middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=61 |issue=3|pages=367–371|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330610311|pmid=6412559}}.

• {{commons category-inline|Homo rhodesiensis|Homo rhodesiensis}}
• {{Wikispecies-inline|Homo rhodesiensis|Homo rhodesiensis}}
• {{cite web|publisher=The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origin Program|title= Kabwe 1|date= January 1921|access-date=2 November 2010 | url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/fossils/kabwe-1}}
• [http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive Human Timeline (Interactive)] – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

{{Homo heidelbergensis|state=collapsed}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q131464}}

Category:Homo heidelbergensis

Rhodesiensis

Category:Fossil taxa described in 1921