Hu Shih#Writings

Hu Shih was born on 17 December 1891, in Shanghai to Hu Chuan ({{zhi|t=胡傳}}), and his third wife Feng Shundi ({{zhi|t=馮順弟}}).{{Cite book |last=O'Neill |first=Mark |title=China's Great Liberal of the 20th Century – Hu Shih: A Pioneer of Modern Chinese Language |publisher=Sanlian Bookstore |location=Hong Kong |year=2022 |isbn=978-962-04-4918-5 |page=18}} Hu Chuan was a tea merchant who became a public servant, serving in northern China, Hainan, and Taiwan. During their marriage, Feng Shun-di was younger than some of Hu Chuan's children. After Hu Shih's birth, Hu Chuan moved to Taiwan to work in 1892, where his wife and Hu Shih joined him in 1893. Shortly before Hu Chuan's death in 1895, his wife Feng and the young Hu Shih left Taiwan for their ancestral home in Anhui.{{cite book |last1=Grieder |first1=Jerome |title=Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance: Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917–1937 |year=1970 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=3–8}}

In January 1904, when Hu was 11 years old, his mother arranged his marriage to Chiang Tung-hsiu ({{zhi|c=江冬秀}}).{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Jolly |first=Margaretta |title=Encyclopedia of Life Writing: Autobiographical and Biographical Forms |volume=I: A–K |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |year=2001 |isbn=1-57958-232-X |location=London |page=442}} In the same year, Hu and an elder brother moved to Shanghai seeking a "modern" education.{{cite book |last1=Mair |first1=Victor H. |title=Chinese Lives: The people who made a civilization |year=2013 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=978-0-500-25192-8 |page=208}}

Hu became a "national scholar" through funds appropriated from the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program. On 16 August 1910, he was sent to study agriculture at Cornell University in the United States.{{Cite book |last1=Chou |first1=Chih-Ping |title=Power of Freedom: Hu Shih's Political Writings |last2=Lin |first2=Carlos |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-472-07526-3 |page=22}} In 1912, he changed his major to philosophy and literature, and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. He was also a member and later a president of the Cosmopolitan Club, an international student organization. While at Cornell, Hu led a campaign to promote the newer, easier to learn Modern Written Chinese which helped spread literacy in China.{{cite news |last1=Friedlander |first1=Blaine |title=Residence hall names honor McClintock, Hu, Cayuga Nation |url=https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2021/03/residence-hall-names-honor-mcclintock-hu-cayuga-nation |access-date=27 June 2023 |work=Cornell Chronicle |publisher=Cornell University |date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605063504/https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2021/03/residence-hall-names-honor-mcclintock-hu-cayuga-nation |archive-date=5 June 2023 |location=Ithaca, New York}} He also helped found Cornell's extensive library collections of East Asian books and materials.

After receiving his undergraduate degree, he went to study philosophy at Teachers College, Columbia University, in New York City, where he was influenced by his professor, John Dewey, and started literary experiments.{{sfn|Egan|2017}} Hu became Dewey's translator and a lifelong advocate of pragmatic evolutionary change, helping Dewey in his 1919–1921 lectures series in China. Hu returned to lecture in Peking University. During his tenure there, he received support from Chen Duxiu, editor of the influential journal New Youth, quickly gaining much attention and influence. Hu soon became one of the leading and influential intellectuals during the May Fourth Movement and later the New Culture Movement.

Hu quit New Youth in the 1920s and published several political newspapers and journals with his friends. His most important contribution was the promotion of vernacular Chinese in literature to replace Classical Chinese, which was intended to make it easier for the ordinary person to read.Luo, Jing (2004). Over a Cup of Tea: An Introduction to Chinese Life and Culture. University Press of America. {{ISBN|0761829377}} Hu Shih once said, "A dead language can never produce a living literature."{{sfn|Bary|Lufrano|2000|p=362}} The significance of this for Chinese culture was great{{snd}}as John Fairbank put it, "the tyranny of the classics had been broken."{{cite book |first=John King |last=Fairbank |year=1979 |orig-year=1948 |title=The United States and China |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesch1979fair |url-access=registration |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesch1979fair/page/232 232]–233, 334}} Hu devoted a great deal of energy to rooting his linguistic reforms in China's traditional culture rather than relying on imports from the West. As his biographer Jerome Grieder put it, Hu's approach to China's "distinctive civilization" was "thoroughly critical but by no means contemptuous."Jerome B. Grieder, Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917–1937 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 161–162. ACLS Humanities E-Book. URL: http://www.humanitiesebook.org/ For instance, he studied Chinese classical novels, especially the 18th century novel Dream of the Red Chamber, as a way of establishing the vocabulary for a modern standardized language.{{cite web |url=http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/features.php?searchterm=019_vale.inc&issue=019 |title=Vale: David Hawkes, Liu Ts'un-yan, Alaistair Morrison |publisher=China Heritage Quarterly of the Australian National University}} His Peking University colleague Wen Yuan-ning dubbed Hu a Philosophe for his humanistic interests and expertise.Wen Yuan-ning, and others. [https://www.cambriapress.com/pub.cfm?bid=707 Imperfect Understanding: Intimate Portraits of Modern Chinese Celebrities]. Edited by Christopher Rea (Amherst, MA: Cambria, 2018), pp. 41–44.

Hu was among the New Culture Movement reformers who welcomed Margaret Sanger's 1922 visit to China. He personally translated her speech delivered at Beijing National University which stressed the importance of birth control. Periodicals The Ladies' Journal and The Women's Review published Hu's translation.{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Sarah Mellors |url= |title=Reproductive realities in modern China: birth control and abortion, 1911–2021 |year=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-00-902733-5|page=24}}

He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1932 and the American Philosophical Society in 1936.{{Cite web |date=9 February 2023 |title=Shih Hu |url=https://www.amacad.org/person/shih-hu |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences}}{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Hu+Shih&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}

Hu was the Republic of China's ambassador to the United States from 1938 to 1942.{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1938/10/29/archives/president-assures-chinas-new-envoy-tells-dr-hu-shih-we-will-keep.html |title=PRESIDENT ASSURES CHINA'S NEW ENVOY; Tells Dr. Hu Shih We Will Keep Foreign Policy Based Upon Law and Order DIPLOMAT VOICES THANKS He Declares His People Will Fight On for Peace With Justice and Honor President Gives Assurance Will Fight On Indefinitely |date=29 October 1938 |work=The New York Times |access-date=16 May 2019 |issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1942/09/02/archives/ambassador-hu-shih-recalled-by-china-wei-tao-ming-formerly-at-vichy.html |title=Ambassador Hu Shih Recalled by China; Wei Tao Ming, Formerly at Vichy, Will Be His Successor |date=2 September 1942 |work=The New York Times |access-date=16 May 2019 |issn=0362-4331}}{{sfnp|Cheng|Lestz|1999|p=373}} He was recalled in September 1942 and was replaced by Wei Tao-ming. Hu then served as chancellor of Peking University, at the time called National Peking University, between 1946 and 1948. In 1957, he became the third president of the Academia Sinica in Taipei, a post he retained until his death. He was also chief executive of the Free China Journal, which was eventually shut down for criticizing Chiang Kai-shek.

File:Hu Shih Hall, Cornell University, north facade.jpg]]

He died of a heart attack in Nankang, Taipei at the age of 70, and was entombed in Hu Shih Park, adjacent to the Academia Sinica campus. That December, Hu Shih Memorial Hall was established in his memory.{{cite web |url=http://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/about1_1.aspx |script-title=zh:成立經過 |trans-title=Establishment process |access-date=27 June 2019 |script-quote=zh:同年十二月十日，管理委員會舉行第一次會議，紀念館宣告正式成立，開始布置。 |publisher=Academia Sinica |language=zh}} It is an affiliate of the Institute of Modern History at the Academia Sinica, and includes a museum, his residence, and the park. Hu Shih Memorial Hall offers audio tour guides in Chinese and English for visitors.

Hu Shih's work fell into disrepute in mainland China until an 1986 article written by Ji Xianlin, "A Few Words for Hu Shih" ({{lang|zh|为胡适说几句话}}), acknowledged Hu Shih's mistakes. This article was sufficiently convincing to many scholars that it led to a re-evaluation of the development of modern Chinese literature."[http://www.china.org.cn/english/NM-e/139052.htm Ji Xianlin: A Gentle Academic Giant]", china.org, 19 August 2005 Selection 15 of the Putonghua Proficiency Test is a story about Hu Shih debating the merits of written vernacular Chinese over Literary Chinese.Putonghua Shuiping Ceshi Gangyao. 2004. Beijing. pp. 362–363. {{ISBN|7100039967}}

Hu also claimed that India conquered China culturally for 2000 years via religion. At the same time, Hu criticized Indian religions for holding China back scientifically.{{cite book |last=Deepak |first=B. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_fsOEAAAQBAJ&dq=hu+shih+india+centuries&pg=PA6 |title=India and China: Beyond the Binary of Friendship and Enmity |year=2020 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9811595004 |page=6 |via=Google Books}}

Including redology, he had a wide range of interests in literature, philosophy, history, textual criticism, and pedagogy. Feng Youlan criticized Hu for adopting a pragmatist framework and ignoring all the schools of Chinese philosophy before the Warring States period. Instead of simply laying out the history of Chinese philosophy, Feng claims that Hu made the reader feel as if "the whole Chinese civilization is entirely on the wrong track."{{sfn|Chou|2012|p=220}} Before Feng, Hu might have been the first to interpret the concept of the Tao through modern Western philosophy.{{Cite book |last=Mou |first=Bo |title=The Routledge History of Chinese Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-134-24938-1 |page=220}}

As "one of Cornell University's most notable Chinese alumni", Hu has several honors there, including the Hu Shih Professorship and Hu Shih Distinguished lecture. Hu Shih Hall, a {{convert|103835|sqft|sqm|adj=on}} residence hall, was dedicated at Cornell in 2022.{{Cite web |title=Hu Shih Hall |url=https://scl.cornell.edu/residential-life/housing/campus-housing/first-year-undergraduates/residence-halls/hu-shih-hall |access-date=24 October 2022 |website=Student & Campus Life, Cornell University}}

During his time at Columbia, Hu became a supporter of the school of Pragmatism. Hu translated "Pragmatism" as {{zhc|c=實驗主義|p=shíyànzhǔyì|l=experimental-ism}}.{{efn|The common contemporary Chinese word for "Pragmatism" is {{zhc|c=實用主義|p=shíyòngzhǔyì}}}} Hu's taking to the thinking reflected his own philosophical appeals. Before he encountered Dewey's works, he wrote in his diary that he was in a search of "practical philosophy" for the survival of the Chinese people, rather than deep and obscure systems. He was interested in {{zhl|l=methodologies|c=術}}.{{sfn|Hu|1948|pp=167–168}} Hu viewed Pragmatism as a scientific methodology for the study of philosophy. He appreciated the universality of such a scientific approach because he believed that such a methodology transcends the boundary of culture and therefore can be applied anywhere, including China during his time. Hu Shih was not so interested in the content of Dewey's philosophy, caring rather about the method, the attitude, and the scientific spirit.Hu Shih, 杜威先生與中國 (Mr. Dewey and China), dated 11 July 1921; 胡適文存 (Collected Essays of Hu Shih), ii, 533–537.

Hu saw all ideologies and abstract theories only as hypotheses waiting to be tested. The content of ideologies, Hu believed, was shaped by the background, political environment, and even the personality of the theorist. Thus these theories were confined within their temporality. Hu felt that only the attitude and spirit of an ideology could be universally applied. Therefore, Hu criticized any dogmatic application of ideologies. After Hu took over as the chief editor at Weekly Commentary ({{lang|zh|每周評論}}) in 1919, he criticized Li Dazhao and engaged in a heated debate regarding ideology and problem ({{lang|zh|問題與主義論戰}}). Hu writes in "A Third Discussion of Problems and Isms" ({{lang|zh|三問題與主義}}):{{blockquote|"Every isms and every theory should be studied, but they can only be viewed as hypothesis, not dogmatic credo; they can only be viewed as a source of reference, not as rules of religion; they can only be viewed as inspiring tools, not as absolute truth that halts any further critical thinkings. Only in this way can people cultivate creative intelligence, become able to solve specific problems, and emancipate from the superstition of abstract words."Hu Shih, 三論問題與主義 (A Third Discussion of Problems and Isms), 每週評論 no. 36, (Aug. 24, 1919); 胡適文存 (Collected Essays of Hu Shih), ii, 373.}}Throughout the literary works and other scholarships of Hu Shih, the presence of Pragmatism as a method is prevalent. Hu Shih avoided using an ill-defined scientific method. He described his own as experiential, inductive, verification-oriented, and evolutionary.{{Cite journal |last=Chang |first=Han-liang |title=Hu Shih and John Dewey: 'scientific method' in the May Fourth era – China 1919 and after |year=2000 |journal=Comparative Criticism |volume=22 |pages=91–103 |url=https://www.academia.edu/10878653}}

Hu quotes Dewey's division of thought into five steps:

1. A felt difficulty
2. Its location and definition
3. Suggestion of possible solution
4. Development of the suggestions
5. Further observation and experiment leads to acceptance or rejection.

Hu saw his life work as a consistent project of practicing the scientific spirit of Pragmatism as a lifestyle.

For Hu Shih, skepticism and pragmatism are inseparable. In his essay "Introducing My Thoughts"{{Cite book |last=胡適 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QFfHEAAAQBAJ |title=介紹我自己的思想：文學傳承，思想成長 |date=2023-06-15 |publisher=千華駐科技 |isbn=978-626-368-751-6 |language=zh}} ({{lang|zh|介紹我自己的思想}}), he states that Thomas H. Huxley is the one person who most heavily influenced his thoughts.Hu, Shih (1935). 胡適論學近著 (Hu Shih's Recent Writings on Scholarship). Shanghai: Commercial Press. pp. 630–646. Huxley's agnosticism is the negative precondition to the practical, active problem-solving of Dewey's pragmatism. Huxley's "genetic method" in Hu's writing becomes a "historical attitude", an attitude that ensures one's intellectual independence which also leads to individual emancipation and political freedom.

File:Hu Shi.jpg]]Hu Shih brought the scientific method and the spirit of Skepticism into traditional Chinese textual study (kaozheng), laying the groundwork for contemporary studies of Chinese intellectual history.

In 1919, Hu Shih published the first volume of An Outline History of Chinese Philosophy. The later portion was never finished. Cai Yuanpei, president of Peking University where Hu was teaching at the time, wrote the preface for Outline and pointed out four key features of Hu's work:

1. Method of proving for dates, validity, and perspectives of methodology
2. "Cutting off the many schools" ({{lang|zh|截斷衆流}}), meaning ignoring all schools before the time of Warring States period and starting with Laozi and Confucius
3. Equal treatment for Confucianism, Mohism, Mencius, and Xunzi{{clarify|date=March 2025}}
4. Systematic studies with chronological orders and juxtaposition that present the evolution of theories

Hu's organization of classical Chinese philosophy imitated Western philosophical history, but the influence of textual study since the time of the Qing dynasty is still present. Especially for the second point, "cutting off the many schools" is a result of the continuous effort of Qing scholarship around ancient textual studies. Since the validity of the ancient texts is questionable and the content of them obscure, Hu decided to leave them out. In fact, before the publication of Outline, Hu was appointed to be the lecturer of History of Classical Chinese Philosophy. His decision of leaving out pre-Warring States philosophy almost caused a riot among students.{{sfn|Yu|2014|pp=348–355}}{{clarify|reason=This paragraph is unclear|date=May 2019}}

In Outline, other philosophical schools of the Warring States were first treated as equal. Hu did not hold Confucianism as the paradigm while treating other schools as heresy. Rather, Hu saw philosophical values within other schools, even those considered to be anti-Confucian, like Mohism. Yu Yingshi commented how this paradigm followed Thomas Kuhn's Enlightenment theory.{{sfn|Yu|2014|p=357}}

Feng Youlan, the author of A History of Chinese Philosophy, criticizes Hu for adopting a pragmatist framework in Outline. Instead of simply laying out the history of Chinese philosophy, Feng claims that Hu criticizes these schools from a pragmatist perspective which makes the reader feel as if "the whole Chinese civilization is entirely on the wrong track."Yu-lan Fung, "Philosophy in Contemporary China" paper presented in the Eighth International Philosophy Conference, Prague, 1934. Feng also disagrees with Hu's extensive effort on researching the validity of the resource text. Feng believes that as long as the work itself is philosophically valuable, its validity is not as significant.{{clarify|date=March 2025}}{{sfn|Chou|2012|p=36}}

{{Liberalism in China|People}}

{{New Culture Movement}}

Unlike many of his contemporaries who later joined the Socialist camp, liberalism and democracy were Hu's political beliefs throughout his life. He firmly believed that the world as a whole was heading toward democracy, despite the changing political landscape.{{sfn|Chou|2012|p=288}}Hu, Shih (1947), 我们必须选择我们的方向 (We Must Choose Our Own Direction).{{page needed|date=March 2025}} Hu defines democracy as a lifestyle in which everyone's value is recognized, and everyone has the freedom to develop a lifestyle of individualism.Hu, Shih (1955), 四十年来中国文艺复兴运动留下的抗暴消毒力量—中国共产党清算胡适思想的历史意义.{{page needed|date=March 2025}} For Hu, individual achievement does not contradict societal good. In fact, individual achievement contributes to overall social progress, a view that he distinguishes from the so-called "selfish individualism."Hu, Shih (1918). 易卜生主义 (Ibsenisim).{{page needed|date=March 2025}} In his essay, "Immortality{{snd}}My Religion", Hu stresses that although individuals eventually perish physically, one's soul and the effect one has on society are immortal.Hu, Shih (1919). Immortality{{snd}}My Religion, New Youth 6.2. Therefore, Hu's individualism is a lifestyle in which people are independent and yet social.{{sfn|Chou|2012|p=290}}

Hu sees individual contributions as crucial and beneficial to the system of democracy. In "A Second Discussion on Nation-Building and Autocracy" ({{lang|zh|再談建國與專治}}), Hu comments that an autocratic system needs professionals to manage it while democracy relies on the wisdom of the people. When different people's lived experiences come together, no elite politician is needed for coordination, and therefore democracy is, in fact, easy to practice with people who lack political experience. He calls democracy "naive politics" ({{lang|zh|幼稚政治}}), a political system that can help cultivate those who participate in it."[https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E5%BE%9E%E4%B8%80%E9%BB%A8%E5%88%B0%E7%84%A1%E9%BB%A8%E7%9A%84%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB 从一党到无党的政治 – 维基文库，自由的图书馆]". zh.wikisource.org. Retrieved 15 April 2019.

Hu also equates democracy with freedom, a freedom that is made possible by tolerance. In a democratic system, people should be free from any political persecution as well as any public pressure. In his 1959 essay "Tolerance and Freedom", Hu Shih stressed the importance of tolerance and claimed that "tolerance is the basis of freedom". In a democratic society, the existence of opposition must be tolerated. Minority rights are respected and protected. People must not destroy or silence the opposition.{{sfn|Chou|2012|pp=290–292}}

A large portion of Hu Shih's scholarship in his later years is dedicated to finding a Chinese root for democracy and liberalism. Many of his writings, including "Historic Tradition for a Democratic China",{{clarify|reason=Is the word "Historic" part of the title? If not, it's unclear what it's doing here.|date=May 2019}} "The Right to Doubt in Ancient Chinese Thought", "Authority and Freedom in the Ancient Asian World" make a similar claim that the democratic spirit is always present within the Chinese tradition.{{Cite book |title=English Writings of Hu Shih |first=Shih |last=Hu |year=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-31180-2 |editor-last=Chou |editor-first=Chih-P'ing |series=China Academic Library |location=Berlin |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31181-9}} He claimed that Chinese tradition included:

1. A democratized social structure with an equal inheritance system among sons and the right to rebel under oppressive regimes.
2. Widespread accessibility of political participation through civil service exams.
3. Intragovernmental criticism and censorial control formalized by governmental institutions and the Confucian tradition of political criticism.

In 1928, Hu along with Wen Yiduo, Chen Yuan, Liang Shih-chiu, and Xu Zhimo founded the monthly journal Crescent Moon, named after Tagore's prose verse. In March 1929, he learned from Shanghai Special Representatives of National Party Chen De.

Hu criticized and rejected Sun Yat-sen's claim that people are incapable of self-rule{{fact|date=March 2025}} and considered democracy itself a form of political education. The legitimacy and the competency of people participating in the political process comes from their lived experience. Sun's government also proposed to punish any "anti-revolutionary" without due process.{{fact|date=March 2025}}

Hu wrote an article in Crescent Moon titled "Human Rights and Law" ({{lang|zh|人權與約法}}). In the article, Hu called for the establishment of a written constitution that protects the rights of citizens, especially from the ruling government. The government must be held accountable to the constitution. Later in "When Can We Have Constitution{{snd}}A Question for The Outline of National Reconstruction" ({{lang|zh|我們什麼時候才可有憲法?—對於《建國大綱》的疑問}}), Hu criticized the Nationalist government for betraying the ideal of Constitutionalism in The Outline of National Reconstruction.

File:Hu Shih and Chiang Kai-shek at Academia Sinica 19580410.jpg at Academia Sinica, Taipei, April 1958|left]]

In the early 1950s, the Chinese Communist Party launched a years-long campaign criticizing Hu's thoughts. In response, Hu published many essays in English attacking the political legitimacy of the Chinese Communist Party.{{sfn|Chou|2012|p=202}}

In the writing field, Lu Xun and Hu represented two different political parties. The political differences between the Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party led to significantly different evaluations of the two writers. As a supporter of the Communist Party, Lu Xun was hailed by its leader Mao Zedong as "the greatest and most courageous fighter of the new cultural army". By contrast, Hu Shih was criticized by Communist-leaning historians as "the earliest, the most persistent and most uncompromising enemy of Chinese Marxism and socialist thought". The different evaluations of the two different writers show the complexity{{clarify|date=March 2025}} between two different political parties in modern China.{{Cite book |chapter=Two Versions of Modern Chinese History: a Reassessment of Hu Shi and Lu Xun |year=2020 |title=Remembering May Fourth |pages=75–94 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004424883_005 |isbn=978-9004424883 |last1=Chou |first1=Chih-p'ing |s2cid=216388563}}

Hu's opposition to the Chinese Communist Party was an ideological conflict. As a supporter of Pragmatism, Hu believed that social changes could only happen incrementally. Revolution or any ideologies that claim to solve social problems once and for all are not possible. Such a perspective was present in his early writing, as in the problem versus isms debate. He quotes John Dewey: "progress is not a wholesale matter, but a retail job, to be contracted for and executed in section".

Hu also opposed communism because of his ideological belief in individualism. Hu affirms the individual's right as independent from the collective. The individual has the right to develop freely and diversely without political suppression in the name of uniformity. He writes in "The Conflict of Ideologies":

{{blockquote|"The desire for uniformity leads to suppression of individual initiative, to the dwarfing of personality and creative effort, to intolerance, oppression, and slavery, and, worst of all, to intellectual dishonesty and moral hypocrisy."Hu, Shih (November 1941). "The Conflicts of Ideologies", in The Annuals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 28, pp. 32–34.}}

In contrast to a Marxist vision of history, Hu's conception of history is pluralistic and particular. In his talk with American economist Charles A. Beard, recorded in his diary, Hu believed the making of history is only coincidental. Since he is a proponent of reformism, pluralism, individualism, and skepticism, Hu's philosophy is irreconcilable with Communist ideology. Hu's later scholarship around the Chinese root of liberalism and democracy is consistent with his anti-CCP writings. In a later manuscript titled "Communism, Democracy, and Cultural Pattern", Hu constructs three arguments from Chinese intellectual history, especially from Confucian and Taoist traditions, to combat the authoritative rule of the Chinese Communist Party:

{{blockquote|

1. An almost anarchistic aversion of all governmental interference.
2. A long tradition of love for freedom and fighting for freedom – especially for intellectual freedom and religious freedom, but also for the freedom of political criticism.
3. A traditional exaltation of the individual's right to doubt and question things – even the most sacred things.Hu Shih, "Communism, Democracy, and Cultural Pattern."

}}

Therefore, Hu regards the dictatorship of the Chinese Communist Party as not only "unhistorical", but also "un-Chinese".

Along with Albert Einstein, Hu was one of the sponsors of the Peoples' World Convention (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place from 1950 to 1951 at Palais Electoral in Geneva, Switzerland.{{Cite book |last1=Einstein |first1=Albert |url=http://archive.org/details/einsteinonpeace00eins |title=Einstein on peace |last2=Nathan |first2=Otto |last3=Norden |first3=Heinz |year=1968 |publisher=Schocken |via=Internet Archive |pages=539, 670, 676}}{{Cite web |title=[Carta] 1950 oct. 12, Genève, [Suiza] [a] Gabriela Mistral, Santiago, Chile [manuscrito] Gerry Kraus. |url=http://www.bibliotecanacionaldigital.gob.cl/bnd/623/w3-article-137193.html |website=BND: Archivo del Escritor}}

Hu was an advocate for the literary revolution of the era, a movement which aimed to replace scholarly classical Chinese in writing with the vernacular spoken language, and to cultivate and stimulate new forms of literature. In an article originally published in New Youth in January 1917 titled "A Preliminary Discussion of Literature Reform",文學改良芻議 Hu originally emphasized eight guidelines that all Chinese writers should take to heart in writing:

1. Write with substance. By this, Hu meant that literature should contain real feeling and human thought. This was intended to be a contrast to the recent poetry with rhymes and phrases that Hu saw as being empty.
2. Do not imitate the ancients. Literature should not be written in the styles of long ago, but rather in the modern style of the present era.
3. Respect grammar. Hu did not elaborate at length on this point, merely stating that some recent forms of poetry had neglected proper grammar.
4. Reject melancholy. Recent young authors often chose grave pen names, and wrote on such topics as death. Hu rejected this way of thinking as being unproductive in solving modern problems.
5. Eliminate old clichés. The Chinese language has always had numerous chengyu used to describe events. Hu implored writers to use their own words in descriptions, and deplored those who did not.
6. Do not use allusions. By this, Hu was referring to the practice of comparing present events with historical events even when there is no meaningful analogy.
7. Do not use couplets or parallelism. Though these forms had been pursued by earlier writers, Hu believed that modern writers first needed to learn the basics of substance and quality, before returning to these matters of subtlety and delicacy.
8. Do not avoid popular expressions or popular forms of characters. This rule, perhaps the most well-known, ties in directly with Hu's belief that modern literature should be written in the vernacular, rather than in Classical Chinese. He believed that this practice had historical precedents, and led to greater understanding of important texts.

In April 1918, Hu published a second article in New Youth, this one titled "Constructive Literary Revolution – A Literature of National Speech".建設的文學革命論 In it, he simplified the original eight points into just four:

1. Speak only when you have something to say. This is analogous to the first point above.
2. Speak what you want to say and say it in the way you want to say it. This combines points two through six above.
3. Speak what is your own and not that of someone else. This is a rewording of point seven.
4. Speak in the language of the time in which you live. This refers again to the replacement of Classical Chinese with the vernacular language.

In the 15 July New Youth issue, Hu published an essay entitled, Chastity ({{lang|zh|贞操问题}}). In the traditional Chinese context, this refers not only to virginity before marriage, but specifically to women remaining chaste before they marry and after their husband's death ({{lang|zh|守贞}}). He wrote that this is an unequal and illogical view of life, that there is no natural or moral law upholding such a practice, that chastity is a mutual value for both men and women, and that he vigorously opposes any legislation favoring traditional practices on chastity. There was a movement to introduce traditional Confucian value systems into law at the time.

His 1947 essay We Must Choose Our Own Direction ({{lang|zh|我们必须选择我们的方向}}) was devoted to liberalism. He held the Jiaxu manuscript ({{zhi|c=甲戌本|p=Jiǎxū běn}}) for many years until his death.

Among academic works of Hu Shih are:

• An Outline History of Chinese Philosophy. Vol. 1 (1919).
• The Chinese Renaissance: The Haskell Lectures, 1933. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934).
• Hu Shih's Recent Writings on Scholarship ({{lang|zh|胡適論學近著}}). (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1935). Including essay "Introducing My Thoughts" ({{lang|zh|介紹我自己的思想}}).
• "The Conflicts of Ideologies" in The Annuals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 218, November 1941.{{Cite journal |last=Shih |first=Hu |date=1941-11-01 |title=The Conflict of Ideologies |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/000271624121800104 |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |language=EN |volume=218 |issue=1 |pages=26–35 |doi=10.1177/000271624121800104 |issn=0002-7162|url-access=subscription }}

The 184-page Autobiography at Forty ({{lang|zh|四十自述}}) is the only autobiography written by Hu Shih himself.{{sfn|Hu|2016}}

In 1920, Hu Shih published the collection of his poems Experiments (zh: {{lang|zh|尝试集}}, chángshì jì).{{sfn|Haft|1989|pp=136–138}}

The following excerpt is from a poem titled Dream and Poetry, written in vernacular Chinese by Hu. It illustrates how he applied those guidelines to his own work.

His prose included works like The Life of Mr. Close Enough ({{lang|zh|差不多先生傳}}), a piece criticizing Chinese society which centers around the extremely common Chinese language phrase {{lang|zh|差不多}} ({{transliteration|zh|chàbuduō}}), which means something like "close enough" or "just about right":

{{blockquote|As Mr. Chabuduo ("Close Enough") lay dying, he uttered in an uneven breath, "The living and the dead are cha.........cha........buduo (are just about the same), and as long as everything is cha.........cha........buduo, then things will be fine. Why...........be............too serious?" Following these final words, he took his last gasp of air.{{cite web |url=https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/forums/Chabuduo%20Xiansheng.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/forums/Chabuduo%20Xiansheng.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Chabuduo Xiansheng 差不多先生傳 |language=zh-hant,en |author=Hu Shih |translator=RS Bond |website=USC US-China Institute |page=5 |date=1919}}}}

The Marriage ({{lang|zh|终身大事}}) was one of the first plays written in the new literature style. Published in the March 1919 issue (Volume 6 Number 3) of New Youth, this Hu Shih's one-act play highlights the problems of traditional marriages arranged by parents. The female protagonist eventually leaves her family to escape the marriage in the story.

Hu Shih was part of the Chinese language reform movement and used the vernacular style in writing articles. The opposite style of writing is Classical Chinese, and one of the key leaders of this language was Zhang Shizhao. Hu Shih and Zhang Shizhao had only a ten-year age difference, but the men seemed to be of differing generations.{{Cite journal |last=Ji'an |first=Bai |title=Hu Shi and Zhang Shizhao |journal=Chinese Studies in History |year=2006 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=3–32 |doi=10.2753/csh0009-4633390301 |s2cid=159799416 |issn=0009-4633}}

In October 1919, after visiting {{Ill|Wu Luzhen|zh|吴禄贞}} in China, Hu Shih said with emotion: "In the last ten years, only deceased personalities like Song Jiaoren, Cai E, and Wu Luzhen have been able to maintain their great reputation. The true features of living personalities are soon detected. This is because the times change too quickly. If a living personality does not try his utmost, he falls behind and soon becomes "against the time". In Hu Shih's ideals, only dead people can hold their reputation; the world will soon know the real value and personality of a person if they do not follow the times. They will fall back in time soon if they are not trying to find changes that encourage writers in old China to follow the new revolution and start using the new vernacular style of writing. They cannot stay in the old style; otherwise, they will fall back in time. Furthermore, Hu Shih meant that China needed more new things.

Zhang was the biggest 'enemy' of the vernacular style, According to Liang Souming: "Lin Shu and Zhang Shizhao were two most significant people against vernacular style of writing in history". But in fact, Hu Shih and Zhang Shizhao had a big age difference; when Zhang was at work in Shanghai, Hu was only a middle school student.

Hu Shih participated in the May Fourth Movement, marking the beginning of modern China. Hu had a vision of the May Fourth Movement in China as part of a global shift in philosophy, led by Western countries. The global nature of the movement, in Hu's eyes, was particularly important, given China's relatively recent status as a global power. During the May Fourth Movement, Hu's political position shifted dramatically. As fellow thinkers and students of the movement looked towards socialism, Hu also gained a more favorable view of the collective, centralized organization of groups like the Soviet Union and the Third International. After the early 1930s, he changed back to his earlier positions, which put more weight on individualism. Hu then began criticizing communism such as Mao's government and the Soviet Union. During the chaotic period this movement developed, Hu felt pessimism and a sense of alienation.{{Cite book |last=Chou |first=Min-chih |title=Hu Shih and Intellectual Choice in Modern China |year=1984 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-75074-0 |location=Ann Arbor |doi=10.3998/mpub.9690178}}

Towards the end of Hu's life, he expressed disappointment at the politicization of the May Fourth Movement, which he felt was counter to the primarily philosophical and linguistic issues that drove him to participate in it. No matter how Hu's position shifted through the course of the Movement, he always put the May Fourth Movement in a global, albeit Eurocentric, context.{{Cite book |chapter=Hu Shi and the May Fourth Legacy |year=2020 |title=Remembering May Fourth |pages=113–136 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004424883_007 |isbn=978-9004424883 |last1=Chiang |first1=Yung-Chen |s2cid=216387218}} Despite the implications of the May Fourth Movement, Hu Shih ultimately expressed regret that he was unable to play a larger role in his nation's history.

{{Notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2000 |title=Sources of Chinese Tradition: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |url={{Google books |id=mXEWsXaMJZYC |plainurl=y |page= |keywords= |text=}} |orig-date=1995 |edition=2nd |volume=2 |isbn=0-231-11271-8 |last2=Lufrano |first2=Richard |surname=Bary |given=William Theodore de}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Cheng |first1=Pei-Kai |title=The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection |last2=Lestz |first2=Michael |publisher=W. W. Norton |year=1999 |isbn=0-393-97372-7 |location=New York}}
• {{Cite book |last=Chou |first=Chi-p'ing |year=2012 |language=zh |script-title=zh:胡适思想与现代中国 |trans-title=A fire that never goes out: Hu Shih’s thought and modern China |publisher=Jiuzhou |isbn=9787510814907 |location=Beijing}}
• {{Cite book |last=Chou |first=Min-chih |title=Hu Shih and intellectual choice in modern China |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=c. 1984 |isbn=0-472-10039-4 |series=Michigan studies on China |location=Ann Arbor}}
• {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2017 |title=A New Literary History of Modern China |publisher=Belknap |location=Cambridge, MA |url={{Google books |id=f1WsDwAAQBAJ |plainurl=y}} |editor-last=Wang |editor-first=David Der-wei |editor-link=David Der-wei Wang |pages=242–247 |isbn=978-0-674-97887-4 |surname=Egan |given=Susan Chan |contribution=Hu Shi and His Experiments}}
• {{Cite book |last=Grieder |first=Jerome B. |url=https://archive.org/details/hushihchineseren0000grie |title=Hu Shih and the Chinese renaissance: liberalism in the Chinese revolution, 1917–1937 |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-674-41250-8 |series=Harvard East Asian series |volume=46 |location=Cambridge, MA |url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite book |url={{Google books |id=-KzbQM2sAjoC |plainurl=y}} |title=A Selective Guide to Chinese Literature, 1900–1949 |publisher=Brill |year=1989 |isbn=90-04-08960-8 |editor-last=Haft |editor-first=Lloyd |editor-link=Lloyd Haft |volume=3: The Poem |location=Leiden |pages=136–138 |chapter=Hu Shi, Changshi ji (Experiments), 1920 |chapter-url={{Google books |id=-KzbQM2sAjoC |plainurl=y |page=1e6}}}}
• {{Cite book |title=Living Philosophies |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1931 |location=New York |chapter=Hu Shih}}
• {{Cite book |last=Li |first=Ao |author-link=Li Ao |publisher=Wenxing shudian |year=1964 |series=Literary Star Series |volume=50 |location=Taipei |script-title=zh:胡適評傳 |language=zh}}
• {{Cite book |last=Yang |first=Ch'eng-pin |title=The political thoughts of Dr. Hu Shih |publisher=Bookman |year=c. 1986 |location=Taipei}}
• {{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Ying-shih |author-link=Yu Ying-shih |isbn=9787549554188 |language=zh |year=2014 |script-title=zh:余英时文集 |trans-title=Collected Works of Yu Yingshi |publisher=Guangxi Normal University Press |location=Guilin}}

{{Refend}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{Cite book |last=Hu |first=Shih |url=https://archive.org/details/chineserenaissan00hush |title=The Chinese renaissance: the Haskell lectures, 1933 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=c. 1934 |url-access=registration}}
• {{Cite book |last=Hu |first=Shih |url=https://taiwanebook.ncl.edu.tw/zh-tw/book/NTL-9900006563 |publisher=The Commercial Press |year=1948 |language=zh |script-title=zh:胡适留学日记 |trans-title=Hu Shih's Diary of Study Abroad |author-mask=3 |access-date=16 March 2024 |via=Taiwan eBook}}
• {{Cite book |last=Hu |first=Shih |url=http://en.fltrp.com/c/2017-08-16/504528.shtml |publisher=Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-7-513574297 |series=Boya Bilingual Masterpieces Series |location=Beijing |translator-last=Kao |translator-first=George |script-title=zh:四十自述 |trans-title=Autobiography at Forty |author-mask=3 |orig-date=1933 |translator-link=George Kao |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801190824/http://en.fltrp.com/c/2017-08-16/504528.shtml |archive-date=1 August 2020 |url-status=dead |translator-mask=George Kao (乔志高) |language=zh,en}}
• {{Cite book |last=Hu |first=Shih |url=https://archive.org/details/methodinchina00huuoft/page/n5/mode/2up |title=The development of the logical method in ancient China |publisher=Paragon |year=1963 |author-mask=3 |orig-date=1922 |via=Internet Archive}}

{{Refend}}

• Chan, Wing-tsit. "Hu Shih and Chinese Philosophy." Philosophy East and West 6.1 (1956): 3–12. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396767 online]
• Chinese Writers on Writing featuring Hu Shih. Ed. Arthur Sze. (Trinity University Press, 2010).
• "Dr. Hu Shih, a Philosophe", by Wen Yuan-ning. [http://www.cambriapress.com/cambriapress.cfm?template=4&bid=707 Imperfect Understanding: Intimate Portraits of Modern Chinese Celebrities]. Edited by Christopher Rea. (Amherst, NY: Cambria Press, 2018), pp. 41–44.
• [https://china.usc.edu/sites/default/files/forums/The Life of Mr.pdf Another Mr. Chabuduo English Translation]{{dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} at University of Southern California
• [http://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/research3.aspx Selected Bibliography of Hu Shih's Writings in English Language]

• {{cite book |title=A Republic for China (in The Cornell Era Vol. 44 No. 4) |year=1912 |publisher=Cornell University |location=Ithaca |url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/22146/Era_V44_1911_12.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y |pages=240–242}}
• {{cite book |title=The International Student Movement |year=1913 |url=https://archive.org/details/chinesestudentsm14bost |pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinesestudentsm14bost/page/37 37]–39 |publisher=Boston}}
• {{cite book |script-title=zh:胡適文存 |trans-title=Collected Essays of Hu Shih |language=zh |year=1921 |url=http://taiwanebook.ncl.edu.tw/zh-tw/book/NCL-9900011653}}

{{Wikiquote}}

{{sister project links|d=Q47667|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|s=no|wikt=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20111118100214/http://www.csua.berkeley.edu/~mrl/HuShih/ "The Chinese Renaissance"]: a series of lectures Hu Shih delivered at the University of Chicago in the summer of 1933. (see print Reference listed above)
• [http://www.newconcept.com/jixi/mingren/hushi/index.html "Hu Shih Study"] at newconcept.com {{in lang|zh}}
• [https://pk.tc.columbia.edu/item/53053?fileId=77512 "Hu Shih in The Chinese Student Club At Teachers College"]{{dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} at pk.tc.Columbia.edu

• [http://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/Default.aspx?lang=enUS Hu Shih Memorial Hall] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528060644/https://www.mh.sinica.edu.tw/koteki/Default.aspx?lang=enUS |date=28 May 2023 }} in Nangang District, Taipei, Taiwan
• [https://lib-linux2.hkbu.edu.hk/scadb/pgcw/purl.php?&did=pgcw023 Hu Shi. A Portrait by Kong Kai Ming] at Portrait Gallery of Chinese Writers (Hong Kong Baptist University Library).

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{{s-bef|before = Wang Zhengting}}

{{s-ttl|title = China's Ambassador to the United States|years = 1938–1942}}

{{s-aft|after = Wei Daoming}}

{{s-npo}}

{{s-bef|before=Thornton Wilder}}

{{s-ttl|title= Wartime International Presidential Committee 1941–47 PEN International|years=1941–1947}}

{{s-aft|after=Maurice Maeterlinck}}

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{{China Ambassadors to US}}

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