Human composting

{{See also|Disposal of human corpses#Commonly practiced legal methods|Cremation#Modern process|Burial#Burial methods|Death care industry in the United States}}

In the 21st century, several factors led to development of human composting as one of several proposals for alternative deathcare.{{Cite news |last=Paul |first=Kari |date=2023-02-19 |title=From cradle to compost: the disruptors who want to make death greener |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/feb/19/human-composting-industry-deathcare |access-date=2025-05-08 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

As described in the 1963 exposé The American Way of Death, the for-profit death care industry in the United States evolved after the Civil War to promote ostentatious and resource-intense funerary customs mainly for burial, including embalming with chemicals, expensive coffins, and highly decorated gravesites.{{cite magazine |last=Lovejoy |first=Bess |date=Fall 2013 |title=Fond Farewells: Jessica Mitford's An American Way of Death took down an industry few people knew about, but that everyone would one day need |url=http://www.laphamsquarterly.org/death/fond-farewells |access-date=2016-09-27 |magazine=Lapham's Quarterly |volume=VI |number=4}} Following the exposé, cremation grew in popularity as a simpler alternative, outnumbering burials nationwide by 2015.{{Cite web |last=Scutti |first=Susan |date=2017-08-09 |title=Half of Americans choose cremation |url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/08/09/health/cremation-tops-burials-in-us-study |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=September 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912230206/https://www.cnn.com/2017/08/09/health/cremation-tops-burials-in-us-study |url-status=live }} However, cremation itself is under scrutiny due to the use of fossil fuels in retorts and the emissions released by combustion (which may include toxic mercury from dental amalgam).{{Cite journal |last=Tibau |first=Anita Vazquez |last2=Grube |first2=Blanche D. |date=June 2019 |title=Mercury Contamination from Dental Amalgam |url=https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.5696/2156-9614-9.22.190612 |journal=Journal of Health and Pollution |volume=9 |issue=22 |pages=190612 |doi=10.5696/2156-9614-9.22.190612 |pmc=6555253 |pmid=31259088 |archive-date=February 1, 2025 |access-date=May 8, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250201121714/https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.5696/2156-9614-9.22.190612 |url-status=live }}

Although the natural decomposition of human corpses into soil is a long-standing practice, Katrina Spade (founder of Recompose) is credited with pursuing research on ways to accelerate the process using methods previously used with livestock.{{cite web |last1=Prasad |first1=Ritu |date=January 30, 2019 |title=How do you compost a human body – and why would you? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47031816 |website=BBC News |access-date=January 2, 2023 |archive-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108002333/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47031816 |url-status=live }} The process was the subject of scientific study at Washington State University.{{Cite web |title=Study Provides Details on Human Composting Process Set to Begin in Washington State {{!}} American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) |url=https://www.aaas.org/news/study-provides-details-human-composting-process-set-begin-washington-state |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=www.aaas.org |language=en |archive-date=January 26, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126183735/https://www.aaas.org/news/study-provides-details-human-composting-process-set-begin-washington-state |url-status=live }}

{{See also|Compost#Fundamentals}}

Composting is an aerobic method of decomposing organic solid matter to recycle it.{{cite web |last= |first= |date=17 April 2013 |title=Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - US EPA |url=https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208003610/https://www.epa.gov/recycle/composting-home |archive-date=8 February 2017 |access-date=12 July 2021 |website=US EPA}} The process involves decomposing organic material into a humus-like material, known as compost, which can fertilize plants.{{Cite book |last=Masters |first=Gilbert M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3BhSAAAAMAAJ&q=Human+waste+can+also+be+added+as+an+input+to+the+composting+process+since+human+waste+is+a+nitrogen-rich+organic+material |title=Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science |date=1997 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=9780131553842 |language=en |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126005451/https://books.google.com/books?id=3BhSAAAAMAAJ&q=Human+waste+can+also+be+added+as+an+input+to+the+composting+process+since+human+waste+is+a+nitrogen-rich+organic+material |archive-date=26 January 2021 |url-status=live}} Composting organisms require four equally important ingredients to work effectively: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and water.{{Cite web |title=The Science of Composting |url=http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217221013/http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm |archive-date=17 February 2016 |website=Composting for the Homeowner |publisher=University of Illinois}}{{Cite web |title=The Science of Composting |url=http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217221013/http://web.extension.illinois.edu/homecompost/science.cfm |archive-date=17 February 2016 |website=Composting for the Homeowner |publisher=University of Illinois}}

As described in patent application and news reports, Recompose's method entails placement of human corpses in a container along with a composting feedstock of plant material. In reports, this is described as a mixture of woodchips, straw, and alfalfa.{{Cite web |date=2019-05-16 |title=Soil Instead Of Ashes: Human Composting Is About To Become Legal In Washington State |url=https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2019/05/16/human-composting-washington |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.wbur.org |language=en |archive-date=January 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107044330/https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2019/05/16/human-composting-washington |url-status=live }} Recompose estimates they use {{Convert|729|cuft|m3}} of plant material.{{Cite web |title=How much soil is created by human composting? |url=https://recompose.life/faqs/how-much-soil-is-created-by-human-composting/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Recompose |language=en-US |archive-date=January 29, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250129200137/https://recompose.life/faqs/how-much-soil-is-created-by-human-composting/ |url-status=live }} The mixture is aerated (and optionally rotated) to encourage the temperature of the mixture to rise until thermophile microbes decompose the body and the feedstock.{{Cite patent|number=US20200207675A1|title=System and method for recomposition of the dead|gdate=2020-07-02|invent1=Bernstein|invent2=SPADE|inventor1-first=Oren|inventor2-first=Katrina|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US20200207675A1}} In addition to developing the composting process itself, Spade worked with engineer Oren Bernstein to design containers and frames to compost several bodies within a single complex.

In this manner, the transformation can be sped up to as little as 1–2 months. The soil can be returned to loved ones in containers and scattered, similar to cremains.{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KDYcdrjVn2k |title=Human composting: The rising interest in natural burial |date=2023-06-18 |last=CBS Sunday Morning |access-date=2025-05-08 |via=YouTube |archive-date=December 22, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222215023/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KDYcdrjVn2k |url-status=live }} Recompose estimates that per person, their process yields soil in the amount of {{Convert|27|cuft|m3}} by volume and {{Convert|1000|lb|kg}} by weight.

There are various terms for specific methods of composting human remains. These include:

• Natural organic reduction (NOR) or simply organic reduction, is the term adopted by the State of Washington after it became the first jurisdiction to legalize and regulate a form of human composting. Natural organic reduction is legally defined as "the contained, accelerated conversion of human remains to soil."{{Cite web |title=WSR 24-15-129 PERMANENT RULES STATE BOARD OF HEALTH |url=https://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/law/wsr/2024/15/24-15-129.htm |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov |archive-date=April 21, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250421125800/https://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/law/wsr/2024/15/24-15-129.htm |url-status=live }} This term and definition was subsequently adopted by other states in their own codes and regulations.{{Cite web |title=Chapter 692 — Funeral Service Practitioners; Embalmers; Death Care Consultants; Funeral Establishments; Cemetery Operators; Crematory Operators and Alternative Disposition Facilities |url=https://www.oregonlegislature.gov/bills_laws/ors/ors692.html |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=www.oregonlegislature.gov |archive-date=April 18, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250418115907/https://www.oregonlegislature.gov/bills_laws/ors/ors692.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Vermont Laws - Title 18 : Health, Chapter 121 : Cemeteries |url=https://legislature.vermont.gov/statutes/section/18/121/05302 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=legislature.vermont.gov}}

Private companies who perform natural organic reduction have trademarks and patents for specific methods of natural organic reduction. News reports have genericized these terms.

• Recomposition is the term of art used in the U.S. patent application by Katrina Spade and Recompose, PBC.
• Soil transformation is a trademark registered by the Earth Funeral Group, Inc.{{cite web |title=What is soil transformation? |url=https://earthfuneral.com/what-is-soil-transformation/ |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=Earth |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |title="SOIL TRANSFORMATION" Registration Certificate, Case Id 97352340 |url=https://tsdr.uspto.gov/documentviewer?caseId=sn97352340&docId=ORC20230806162202&linkId=1#docIndex=0&page=1 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=USPTO Document Viewer}}{{Cite web |last=Piore |first=Adam |date=2023-09-07 |title=When my friend died, she wanted to be turned into mulch |url=https://www.newsweek.com/when-my-friend-died-she-wanted-turned-mulch-1822625 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}
• Terramation is a trademark registered by Return Home Inc. (formerly Adamah, Inc.){{Cite web |title="TERRAMATION" Registration Certificate, Case Id 90099799 |url=https://tsdr.uspto.gov/documentviewer?caseId=sn90099799&docId=ORC20210606042512&linkId=2#docIndex=1&page=1 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=USPTO Document Viewer}}{{cite web |last1=Helmore |first1=Edward |date=January 1, 2023 |title=New York governor legalizes human composting after death |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jan/01/new-york-governor-legalizes-human-composting-after-death |website=The Guardian}}{{Cite web |date=2025-04-11 |title=Return Home, Inc. Annual Report |url=https://archive.fast-edgar.com/20250411/AULZB22CZ222KT42222I2ZZ2GQMDZU228C72/form_car.pdf |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=fast-edgar.com}}

Persons with certain diseases (such as tuberculosis, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, and ebola) are ineligible for human composting due to pathogens that may survive the composting process.{{Cite web |title=Human composting {{!}} Description, Process, Legality, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/human-composting |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=November 14, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241114144342/https://www.britannica.com/science/human-composting |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2021-01-22 |title=Recompose, the first human-composting funeral home in the U.S., is now open for business |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/life/recompose-the-first-human-compositing-funeral-home-in-the-u-s-is-now-open-for-business/ |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=The Seattle Times |language=en-US}}

Similar to cremation, certain materials in a human body must be handled with care. Implants with batteries (such as pacemakers) or radioactive materials (such as brachytherapy seeds) present risks that require removal before a body is composted. Bone fragments may require pulverization in the middle of the composting process to decompose further. Metals (such as those from hip replacement) must be removed from composted remains.{{Cite web |date=2022-06-21 |title=Becoming Human Compost: Natural Organic Reduction |url=https://talkdeath.com/becoming-human-compost-the-process-of-natural-organic-reduction/ |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=TalkDeath |language=en-US |archive-date=March 17, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317150055/https://talkdeath.com/becoming-human-compost-the-process-of-natural-organic-reduction/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Cummins |first=Eleanor |date=2022-10-03 |title=Inside one of the world’s first human composting facilities |url=https://www.theverge.com/c/23307867/human-composting-process-return-home |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=The Verge |archive-date=April 25, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250425142229/https://www.theverge.com/c/23307867/human-composting-process-return-home |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Alternative disposition services: Green burial, alkaline hydrolysis and human composting {{!}} National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health {{!}} NCCEH - CCSNE |url=https://ncceh.ca/resources/evidence-reviews/alternative-disposition-services-green-burial-alkaline-hydrolysis-and |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=ncceh.ca |language=en |archive-date=July 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715060859/https://ncceh.ca/resources/evidence-reviews/alternative-disposition-services-green-burial-alkaline-hydrolysis-and |url-status=live }}

In Washington, regulations require the testing of composted remains for levels of toxins including arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and selenium, as well as fecal coliform and salmonella pathogens. Remains exceeding limits may not be released into the environment.{{Cite web |title=WAC 246-500-055: |url=https://app.leg.wa.gov/wac/default.aspx?cite=246-500-055 |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=app.leg.wa.gov}}{{Cite web |title=WSR 24-15-129 PERMANENT RULES STATE BOARD OF HEALTH |url=https://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/law/wsr/2024/15/24-15-129.htm |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov |archive-date=April 21, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250421125800/https://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/law/wsr/2024/15/24-15-129.htm |url-status=live }}

States that legalized natural organic reduction may have individual restrictions on the handling of organically reduced human remains. These include Colorado's prohibition on growing food with soil from human remains,{{Cite web |title=Human Remains Natural Reduction Soil {{!}} Colorado General Assembly |url=https://www.leg.colorado.gov/bills/sb21-006 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=www.leg.colorado.gov |archive-date=March 16, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316100805/https://leg.colorado.gov/bills/sb21-006 |url-status=live }} and California's allowing state or local agencies to prohibit scattering in specific areas.{{Cite web |title=AB 351- CHAPTERED |url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=202120220AB351 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=leginfo.legislature.ca.gov |language=en |archive-date=May 12, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250512124843/https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=202120220AB351 |url-status=live }}

Proponents say human composting is more economical, environmentally friendly, and respectful of the body and the earth than the methods of disposal that are typically practiced in technologically advanced societies. Cremation uses fossil fuels or large amounts of wood for funeral pyres (both of which generate polluting smoke and release large amounts of carbon), and conventional burial is land-intensive, has a high carbon footprint, and frequently involves disposing of bodily fluids and liquefied organs in the sewer and injecting the body with toxic embalming chemicals. By contrast, human composting, like natural burial, is a natural process and contributes ecological value by preserving the body's nutrient material.{{Cite web |last=Kuta |first=Sarah |title=California Has Legalized Human Composting |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/california-has-legalized-human-composting-180980809/ |access-date=September 9, 2022 |magazine=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en |archive-date=September 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921201922/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/california-has-legalized-human-composting-180980809/ |url-status=live }}

Author and YouTuber Caitlin Doughty, writing in favor of legalization in New York state, argues that the process "fulfills many people’s desire to nurture the earth after dying."{{Cite news |last=Doughty |first=Caitlin |date=2022-12-05 |title=Opinion {{!}} If You Want to Give Something Back to Nature, Give Your Body |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/12/05/opinion/human-composting-new-york.html |access-date=2025-05-05 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=May 4, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250504110538/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/12/05/opinion/human-composting-new-york.html |url-status=live }} An editorial in Undark Magazine argues that "natural organic reduction respects the human body and spirit, supports rather than sullies the earth, and works with nature rather than against it."{{cite web |date=August 18, 2022 |title=Opinion: For a More Sustainable Afterlife, Try Human Composting |url=https://undark.org/2022/08/18/for-a-more-sustainable-afterlife-try-human-composting/ |access-date=February 5, 2023 |website=Undark Magazine |language=en-US}}

Critics say the rapid decomposition process is inappropriate for human bodies. The Catholic Church in the United States, for example has argued that it does not confer the respect due to bodily remains,{{Cite web |last=Molina |first=Alejandra |date=July 12, 2021 |title=Amid Catholic opposition, states are legalizing composting of human remains |url=https://religionnews.com/2021/07/12/amid-catholic-opposition-states-are-legalizing-composting-of-human-remains/|website=Religion News Service |language=en-US}}{{Cite web |date=February 28, 2020|title=Composting of Human Bodies: Memorandum of Opposition|website=New York State Catholic Conference |url=https://www.nyscatholic.org/composting-of-human-bodies/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203031645/https://www.nyscatholic.org/composting-of-human-bodies/|archive-date=December 3, 2020 |language=en-US}} though other Catholics have maintained that human composting "fulfill[s] in a more direct way the Biblical declaration that we are dust and to dust we shall return (Genesis 3:19)."{{cite web |title=The Catholic case to support NY's human composting bill |url=https://www.ncronline.org/opinion/guest-voices/catholic-case-support-nys-human-composting-bill |website=National Catholic Reporter |access-date=February 5, 2023 |language=en-US |date=December 20, 2022 |archive-date=February 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205015508/https://www.ncronline.org/opinion/guest-voices/catholic-case-support-nys-human-composting-bill |url-status=live }} Orthodox Jewish interpretations of Halakha religious law oppose the sped-up composting process, saying it lacks appropriate reverence for the dead, with the matter under debate in other variations of Judaism.{{cite web |last1=Ain |first1=Stewart |title=Jewish law forbids human composting, but for some Jews it's the way to go |url=https://forward.com/news/527817/jewish-human-composting-rabbis-halacha-burial-cremation/ |website=The Forward |access-date=January 2, 2023 |language=en |date=December 9, 2022 |archive-date=January 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102135057/https://forward.com/news/527817/jewish-human-composting-rabbis-halacha-burial-cremation/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title='We're all going to turn to dust': Body composting a 'green' alternative to burial and cremation |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-26/body-composting-a-green-alternative-to-burial-cremation/100486964 |website=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=January 2, 2023 |language=en-AU |date=September 25, 2021}}

Composting of human remains has required explicit authorization from jurisdictions with changes to environmental and professional licensing. Washington was the first U.S. state to legalize, regulate, and license the practice. Three burial businesses in the state of Washington offer human composting {{as of|2022|12|lc=y|post=}}.{{Cite web |date=August 19, 2022 |title=Tracker: Where Is Human Composting Legal In The US? |url=https://earthfuneral.com/resources/tracker-where-human-composting-legal/ |website=Earth |language=en |access-date=January 2, 2023 |archive-date=January 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104185123/https://earthfuneral.com/resources/tracker-where-human-composting-legal/ |url-status=live }}

In the United States, rapid human composting has become legally allowed or approved to become allowed in the future in thirteen states {{As of|2025|lc=y}}.{{Cite news |title=Human Composting: A ‘Green’ Funeral Option |url=https://www.aarp.org/caregiving/basics/info-2024/green-funeral-human-composting.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250421173847/https://www.aarp.org/caregiving/basics/info-2024/green-funeral-human-composting.html |archive-date=April 21, 2025 |access-date=2025-05-04 |work=AARP |language=en |url-status=live }}

• Washington (approved in May 2019, took effect on May 1, 2020){{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-48359571|title=Washington becomes first US state to legalise human composting|website=BBC News|date=May 21, 2019|access-date=January 2, 2023|archive-date=May 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521221646/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-48359571|url-status=live}}
• Colorado (approved in May 2021, took effect on August 8, 2021){{cite web |last1=Sallinger |first1=Marc |title=Body composting begins in Colorado, after state legalizes this alternative to burial or cremation |url=https://www.9news.com/article/news/local/body-composting-colorado/73-cbfd9fd4-36ee-42a1-bc5c-80c9d320f1d2 |website=KUSA |access-date=September 24, 2022 |location=Lafayette |date=September 23, 2021}}
• Oregon (approved in June 2021, took effect on January 1, 2022){{cite web |last1=Arden |first1=Amanda |title=Oregon's human composting law now in effect. Here's what could come next |url=https://www.koin.com/news/oregon/oregons-human-composting-law-now-in-effect/ |website=KOIN |access-date=September 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710130023/https://www.koin.com/news/oregon/oregons-human-composting-law-now-in-effect/ |archive-date=July 10, 2022 |location=Portland |date=July 8, 2022 |url-status=live}}
• Vermont (approved in June 2022, took effect on January 1, 2023){{cite web |title=Scott signs eight bills into law, vetoes environmental bill H606 |url=https://vermontbiz.com/news/2022/june/02/scott-signs-eight-bills-law-vetoes-environmental-bill-h606 |magazine=Vermont Business Magazine |access-date=September 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609074603/https://vermontbiz.com/news/2022/june/02/scott-signs-eight-bills-law-vetoes-environmental-bill-h606 |archive-date=June 9, 2022 |date=June 2, 2022 |url-status=live}}
• California (approved on September 18, 2022, to take effect in 2027){{Cite news |last=Molina |first=Alejandra |date=September 20, 2022 |title=California legalizes human composting bill against opposition by Catholic bishops |website=Religion News Service |url=https://religionnews.com/2022/09/20/california-legalizes-human-composting-bill-which-catholic-bishops-oppose/ |access-date=October 2, 2022 |archive-date=October 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001043055/https://religionnews.com/2022/09/20/california-legalizes-human-composting-bill-which-catholic-bishops-oppose/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Chamings |first1=Andrew |title=California just legalized 'human composting'. Not everyone is happy. |url=https://www.sfgate.com/politics/article/california-legalizes-human-composting-17374470.php |website=San Francisco Chronicle |date=September 19, 2022 |access-date=September 20, 2022}}
• New York (approved on December 31, 2022, took effect August 7, 2024){{cite web |last1=Maysoon |first1=Khan |title=New York OKs human composting law; 6th state in US to do so |url=https://apnews.com/article/new-york-business-washington-vermont-funerals-and-memorial-services-c4b392bc9433505808c73367b2a2ea9e |website=AP News |date=December 31, 2022 |access-date=January 2, 2023 |archive-date=May 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516141127/https://apnews.com/article/new-york-business-washington-vermont-funerals-and-memorial-services-c4b392bc9433505808c73367b2a2ea9e |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=NOTICE OF ADOPTION: Parts 203 and 204 Natural Organic Reduction |url=https://dos.ny.gov/notice-adoption-parts-203-and-204-natural-organic-reduction |access-date=2025-04-22 |website=Department of State |language=en}}
• Nevada (approved in May 2023, took effect on January 1, 2024){{cite web |title=Nevada Legalizes Human Composting! |url=https://returnhome.com/nevada-legalizes-human-composting/ |website=Return Home |date=June 5, 2023 |access-date=6 June 2023}}
• Arizona (approved in April 2024){{Cite web |last=Barry |first=Jason |date=2024-04-06 |title=Gov. Hobbs signs ‘Grandpa in the Garden’ bill, paving way for human composting in Arizona |url=https://www.azfamily.com/2024/04/06/gov-hobbs-signs-grandpa-garden-bill-paving-way-human-composting-arizona/ |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=www.azfamily.com |language=en |archive-date=April 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429092206/https://www.azfamily.com/2024/04/06/gov-hobbs-signs-grandpa-garden-bill-paving-way-human-composting-arizona/ |url-status=live }}
• Delaware (approved in May 2024 "effective immediately"){{Cite web |last=Griffin |first=Krys'tal |title=Delaware is the 10th state to legalize human composting, an alternative funerary practice |url=https://www.delawareonline.com/story/news/2024/05/17/delaware-govern-john-carney-signs-bill-human-composting-recompose-natural-organic-reduction/73735430007/ |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=The News Journal |language=en-US |archive-date=January 9, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250109163740/https://www.delawareonline.com/story/news/2024/05/17/delaware-govern-john-carney-signs-bill-human-composting-recompose-natural-organic-reduction/73735430007/ |url-status=live }}
• Maryland (approved in May 2024, took effect October 2024){{Cite web |last=Curtis |first=Sean |date=2024-05-10 |title=Maryland Legalizes Human Composting, Water Cremation |url=https://www.wboc.com/news/maryland-legalizes-human-composting-water-cremation/article_a6a41864-0ee8-11ef-bce9-7b0d61daa2c7.html |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=WBOC TV |language=en |archive-date=January 9, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250109164230/https://www.wboc.com/news/maryland-legalizes-human-composting-water-cremation/article_a6a41864-0ee8-11ef-bce9-7b0d61daa2c7.html |url-status=live }}
• Minnesota (approved May 2024, to take effect July 2025){{Cite web |date=2024-06-05 |title=HF5247 |url=https://www.revisor.mn.gov/bills/text.php?number=HF5247&type=bill&version=4&session=ls93&session_year=2024&session_number=0&format=pdf |publisher=Office of the Revisor of Statutes of the State of Minnesota |access-date=May 4, 2025 |archive-date=April 14, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250414202330/https://www.revisor.mn.gov/bills/text.php?number=HF5247&type=bill&version=4&session=ls93&session_year=2024&session_number=0&format=pdf |url-status=live }}
• Maine (approved August 2024, effective immediately){{Cite web |last=Walztoni |first=Elizabeth |date=2024-08-25 |title=Maine just legalized composting human remains. What’s next? |url=https://www.bangordailynews.com/2024/08/25/homestead/homestead-environment/maine-composting-human-remains-joam40zk0w/ |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=Bangor Daily News |language=en-US |archive-date=January 8, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250108124541/https://www.bangordailynews.com/2024/08/25/homestead/homestead-environment/maine-composting-human-remains-joam40zk0w/ |url-status=live }}
• Georgia (approved May 2025, effective July 2025){{Cite news |last=Kann |first=Drew |title=‘Human composting’ is a thing. It’ll soon be legal in Georgia |url=https://www.ajc.com/business/2025/05/human-composting-is-a-thing-itll-soon-be-legal-in-georgia/ |access-date=2025-05-13 |work=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution |language=English |issn=1539-7459}}

The Funeral Rule ({{Code of Federal Regulations|16|453}}) enacted by the Federal Trade Commission is a U.S. federal regulation protecting consumers by requiring funeral providers provide information concerning their goods and services. In 2020, the Commission underwent a formal review of the Rule.

In 2022, it published the results of its review, including a section on "New Forms of Disposition" including natural organic reduction, stating:

The Commission is considering modifying the Rule to explicitly include new methods of disposition, such as alkaline hydrolysis and human natural organic reduction. The Rule could then clarify that such providers could offer direct or immediate services with a reduced basic services fee. The Commission is also considering updating the Rule to adapt to new methods of disposition, for example the Rule requirements to offer and provide disclosures about alternative containers for direct services. The Commission wants to ensure the Rule does not stifle innovation and believes the proposed changes help level the playing field for providers of new alternative methods. {{Cite web |date=2022-11-02 |title=Funeral Industry Practices Rule |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/11/02/2022-23832/funeral-industry-practices-rule |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=Federal Register |language=en |archive-date=February 18, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250218153335/https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/11/02/2022-23832/funeral-industry-practices-rule |url-status=live }}

The administrator of the United States National Cemetery System has authorized the placement of "a portion of remains transformed by natural organic reduction" in in-ground burial sections (including green burial sections) and designated scatter gardens at VA national cemeteries that have these options. Those whose remains are scattered or interred in this way may be eligible for memorial markers.{{Cite web |title=National Cemetery Administration - Green Burial Section Pilot - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) |url=https://www.cem.va.gov/green-burial/#FAQ-10 |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=National Cemetery Administration |language=en}}

A National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health study funded by the Public Health Agency of Canada notes that while Canada has yet to legalize the process, "Canadians can access the service in US states such as Washington, the first North American jurisdiction to make it legal." The study notes that the Canadian government should "consider whether inspection or restrictions on the end use of compost transported across borders is required, from jurisdictions where the process is currently permitted, to jurisdictions where it is not."{{Cite web |last=O’Keeffe |first=Juliette |date=2023 |title=Alternative disposition services: Green burial, alkaline hydrolysis and human composting |url=https://ncceh.ca/resources/evidence-reviews/alternative-disposition-services-green-burial-alkaline-hydrolysis-and |url-status=live |website=National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health |publication-place=Vancouver, British Columbia |access-date=May 4, 2025 |archive-date=July 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715060859/https://ncceh.ca/resources/evidence-reviews/alternative-disposition-services-green-burial-alkaline-hydrolysis-and }}

A {{As of|2023|alt=|bare=yes}} Euronews report noted that within the European Union no national-level government has legalized composting of human remains.

The German state of Schleswig-Holstein approved a pilot for a human composting process dubbed reerdigung ("reburial").{{Cite web |last= |date=2024-09-30 |title=Human composting gains ground in Germany as alternative form of burial {{!}} TheMayor.EU |url=https://www.themayor.eu/en/a/view/human-composting-gains-ground-in-germany-as-alternative-form-of-burial-12741 |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=TheMayor.eu |language=en |archive-date=March 20, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250320181553/https://www.themayor.eu/en/a/view/human-composting-gains-ground-in-germany-as-alternative-form-of-burial-12741 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2023-11-22 |title=Reerdigung: Alternative Bestattung im Kokon |url=https://www.zdf.de/nachrichten/ratgeber/reerdigung-bestattung-alternative-100.html |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=ZDFheute |language=de |archive-date=March 23, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250323182725/https://www.zdf.de/nachrichten/ratgeber/reerdigung-bestattung-alternative-100.html |url-status=live }}

In 2024, a research project funded by the French National Research Agency and jointly conducted by the organization Humo Sapiens, the University of Bordeaux, and University of Lille began in with an aim toward a working prototype process by 2026.{{Cite web |last=Charabidze |first=Damien |last2=Bony |first2=Jordy |date=2025-05-02 |title=Mieux enterrer les défunts : le compostage, une nouvelle voie funéraire ? |url=https://theconversation.com/mieux-enterrer-les-defunts-le-compostage-une-nouvelle-voie-funeraire-253681 |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=The Conversation |language=fr |archive-date=May 3, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250503101001/https://theconversation.com/mieux-enterrer-les-defunts-le-compostage-une-nouvelle-voie-funeraire-253681 |url-status=live }} In 2023, Élodie Jacquier-Laforge authored legislation to legalize the process in the National Assembly.{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Expérimentation visant à développer l'humusation |url=https://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/dyn/16/dossiers/humusation_experimentation |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=Assemblée nationale |language=fr |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331095141/https://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/dyn/16/dossiers/humusation_experimentation |url-status=live }}

Groups active in France and Belgium are campaigning for legalization of the process under the name "humusation." Brussels politician Bernard Clerfayt stated his opposition to local legalization, citing a study.{{Cite web |date=2023-02-12 |title=What is human composting and where can you do it in Europe? |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/02/12/from-death-comes-life-the-human-composting-campaigners-lighting-the-way-to-a-greener-after |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=euronews |language=en |archive-date=April 28, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250428163514/https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/02/12/from-death-comes-life-the-human-composting-campaigners-lighting-the-way-to-a-greener-after |url-status=live }}

In May 2020, the Health Council of the Netherlands issued an advisory report on the admissibility of new techniques of disposing of the dead. It found that "the available information on human composting is, as yet, insufficient to make possible an assessment." The report reviewed existing guidance in European regulatory frameworks and reports from European institutions about animal composting. It cites a European Food Safety Authority for composting of dead-on-farm pigs, in which the composted remains are sent for incineration and not release into the environment.{{Cite web |last=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid |first=Welzijn en Sport |date=2020-05-25 |title=Admissibility of new techniques of disposing of the dead - Advisory report - The Health Council of the Netherlands |url=https://www.healthcouncil.nl/documents/advisory-reports/2020/05/25/admissibility-of-new-techniques-of-disposing-of-the-dead |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=www.healthcouncil.nl |language=en-GB |archive-date=February 8, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250208024828/https://www.healthcouncil.nl/documents/advisory-reports/2020/05/25/admissibility-of-new-techniques-of-disposing-of-the-dead |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2012-02-13 |title=Composting and incineration of dead-on-farm pigs {{!}} EFSA |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2559 |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=www.efsa.europa.eu |language=en |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2559 |archive-date=March 20, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250320203944/https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2559 |url-status=live }}

Deborah Smith of the UK's National Association of Funeral Directors noted that human composting has not been undertaken in the United Kingdom.{{Cite news |last=Devlin |first=Hannah |date=2020-02-16 |title=Human composting could be the future of deathcare |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/feb/16/human-composting-could-be-the-future-of-deathcare |access-date=2025-05-04 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

In 2023, the Church of England stated that it is considering the theological, practical and pastoral issues of the practice.{{Cite news |last=Sherwood |first=Harriet |date=2023-02-06 |title=Church of England to consider greener alternatives to burial |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/06/church-of-england-to-consider-greener-alternatives-to-burial |access-date=2025-05-04 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}

As part of its 13th Programme of Law Reform, the Law Commission for England and Wales is considering regulations for human composting among other new funerary methods. The project started at the beginning of 2024 and will run until spring 2026. It will end with a final report and draft Bill.{{Cite web |title=New funerary methods – Law Commission |url=https://lawcom.gov.uk/project/new-funerary-methods/ |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=Law Commission |language=en-GB |archive-date=March 20, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250320023733/https://lawcom.gov.uk/project/new-funerary-methods/ |url-status=live }}

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Category:Burials

Category:Funeral-related industry

Category:Legal aspects of death

Category:Waste management

Category:Biodegradation