Ice cauldron

When an eruption takes place under a bigger glacier, e.g. an ice cap, it normally begins with an effusive stage. The heat forms an ice cave and pillow lava is produced. After some time, the eruption has reached a stage where the pressure drops within the ice vault and the eruption style changes to become explosive. Hyaloclastite is produced and the heat is transferred to the meltwater. "At this stage, the surface ice begins to act brittle and creates concentric fractures that cave in towards the meltwater reservoir. This is referred to as the ice cauldron".{{cite thesis|first1 =S. E.|last1 =Ackiss|title =Investing the Mineralogy and Morphology of Subglacial Volcanoes on Earth and Mars. Dissertation.|publisher= Department of Earth, Atmospheric, & Planetary Sciences West Lafayette, Indiana|date =May 2019|access-date=28 August 2020|url=https://hammer.purdue.edu/articles/thesis/Investigating_the_Mineralogy_and_Morphology_of_Subglacial_Volcanoes_on_Earth_and_Mars/7811642/1/files/14539019.pdf}}

When the eruption continues, “the meltwater reservoir becomes so large that the ice cauldron collapses inward towards the edifice, exposing the meltwater reservoir and allowing the breach of both the reservoir and the explosive lava, releasing plumes of gasses and jets of hyaloclastites“. The ice cauldron can develop further into an ice canyon, as was the case during the 1996 Gjálp eruption. It can continue to exist after the meltwater has left the eruption site and the eruption is terminated. But in most cases, ice flow will fill up the ice cauldron again and make it disappear as soon as the eruption products have cooled down enough.{{cite journal|url =https://www.academia.edu/2424905|first1 =Pall|last1 =Einarsson|first2 =Bryndis|last2 =Brandsdottir|first3 =Magnus Tumi|last3 =Gudmundsson|first4 =Helgi|last4 =Bjornsson|first5 =Karl|last5 =Gronvold|first6 =Freysteinn|last6=Sigmundsson|title =Center of the Icelandic Hospot experiences Volcanic Unrest|journal =Eos|volume =78|issue =35|date =2 September 1997|access-date=30 August 2020}}

Another case are ice cauldrons situated on top of geothermal areas. "(…) hydrothermal systems are created that bring heat up from a magma body, continuously melting ice into water that may be stored at the glacier bed until it breaks out in jökulhlaups".[https://www.academia.edu/2424904/Subglacial_lakes_and_jokulhlaups_in_Iceland Helgi Björnsson: Subglacial lakes and jökulhlaups in Iceland. Global and Planetary Change 35 (2002) 255–271] Retrieved 31 August 2020.

Many examples for a decades long existence of such ice cauldrons are to be found in Iceland.

File:Sylgjökull Hamarskriki 4 Iceland.JPG. Skaftá cauldrons as slight identations to the east of Hamarinn.]]

These are two depressions in the ice cover above two subglacial lakes in the south-western part of Vatnajökull.{{efn|For a map see}}

In the whole, many cauldrons are to be found within Vatnajökull glacier ({{cvt|8100|km2}} in 2015), the largest of which in the western part of the ice cap are the Skaftá cauldrons.{{cite journal|url =https://notendur.hi.is/sigrg/greinar_pdf/Galeczka%20et%20al.%20Skafta%20flood.%20JVGR%20253-276.pdf|first1 =I.|last1 =Galeczka|last2 =Eiriksdottir|first2 =E.S.|last3 =Hardardottir|first3 =J.|last4 =Oelkers|first4 =E.H.|last5 =Torssander|first5 =P.|last6 =Gislason|first6 =S.R.|title =The effect of the 2002 glacial flood on dissolved and suspended chemical fluxes in the Skaftá river, Iceland|journal =Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume =301|year =2015|pages =253–276|access-date =31 August 2020|doi =10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.05.008|bibcode =2015JVGR..301..253G|archive-date =17 May 2021|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20210517123316/https://notendur.hi.is/sigrg/greinar_pdf/Galeczka%20et%20al.%20Skafta%20flood.%20JVGR%20253-276.pdf|url-status =dead}}

These ice cauldrons "are created by melting at subglacial geothermal areas".{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224794787|first1 =S. |last1 =Jónsson|last2 =Adam|first2 =N.|last3 =Björnsson|first3 =H.|title =Effects of Subglacial Geothermal Activity Observed by Satellite Radar Inferometry|journal =Geophysical Research Letters|volume =25|issue =7|pages =1059–1062|date =1 April 1998|access-date=30 August 2020|bibcode =1998GeoRL..25.1059J|doi =10.1029/98GL50567}} The meltwater accumulates in lakes "under the cauldrons until it drains every 2–3 years in a jökulhlaup" of normally up to {{cvt|2000|m3/s}}.

An unusually big outburst flood (jökulhlaup) was recorded in 2015. The eastern Skaftá cauldron had accumulated meltwater in this case during around 5 years. It was discharged down the Skaftá river in September 2015 with a peak of {{cvt|3000|m3/s}} or even more. The cauldron then partially collapsed and formed a depression of up to {{cvt|110|m}} deep in its center and a maximum width of {{cvt|2.7|km}}{{cite journal|last1 =Ultee|first1 =L.|last2 =Meyer|first2 =C.|last3 =Minchew|first3 =B.|year =2020|title =Tensile strength of glacial ice deduced from observations of the 2015 eastern Skaftá cauldron collapse, Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland|journal =Journal of Glaciology|volume =66|issue =260|pages =1–10|doi =10.1017/jog.2020.65|doi-access =free|bibcode =2020JGlac..66.1024U|hdl =1721.1/133821.2|hdl-access =free}}

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Famous examples from Iceland are the ice cauldrons within the Katla caldera.

Katla is an important caldera and central volcano situated under the Mýrdalsjökull glacier cap in the southern part of Iceland's East Volcanic Zone. 150–200 eruptions during Holocene have been attributed to Katla, and 17 of these happened since Settlement of Iceland in the 8th century. Most of the eruptions had their origin in the ice covered caldera. The last large eruption took place in 1918 and was associated with a jökulhlaup with an estimated peak discharge of about {{cvt|300000|m3/s}}.

Within the caldera 12–17 ice cauldrons are supra- and inglacial manifestations of a near-surface magmatic storage system. K. Scharrer explains that "twenty permanent and 4 semi-permanent ice cauldrons could be identified on the surface of Mýrdalsjökull indicating geothermally active areas in the underlying caldera".{{cite thesis|url=https://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/7798/1/Scharrer_Kilian.pdf|first1 =K.|last1 =Scharrer|title = Monitoring ice-volcano interactions in Iceland using SAR and other remote sensing techniques. Dissertation|publisher =Fakultät für Geowissenschaften der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München|date =4 September 2007|access-date= 30 August 2020}} Others have also documented the change with time of ice cauldrons at Katla.{{rp|71}}

They have a depth of {{cvt|10|–|40|m}} and a width of {{cvt|0.6|–|1.6|km}}. In 1955, 1999 and 2011 small to medium-sized jökulhlaup originated from some new ice cauldrons. It is still subject of discussion if they were eruption caused or initiated by heating up of the geothermal areas under these cauldrons. "The geothermal heat output is in the order of a few hundred megawatt".{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233652005|first1 =Magnús T.|last1 =Guðmundsson|last2 =Högnadóttir|first2 =Þ.|last3 =Kristinsson|first3 =A.B.|last4 =Guðbjörnsson|first4 =S|title=Geothermal activity in the subglacial Katla caldera, Iceland, 1999–2005, studied with radar altimetry|journal =Annals of Glaciology|volume=45|year =2007|pages =66–72|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814071419/https://www.igsoc.org/annals/45/a45a062.pdf|archive-date=14 August 2020 |access-date=14 August 2020|doi =10.3189/172756407782282444|bibcode =2007AnGla..45...66G}}

File:Fourpeaked - Fumarole on NW side (2007-02-22).jpg, Alaska]]

Ice cauldrons of course do not form only in Iceland, but also at many other places where there is subglacial volcanic activity, e.g. in Alaska (Mount Redoubt, Mount Spurr).{{cite journal|type =Preprint|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324794762|last1 =Barr|first1 =I.D.|last2 =Lynch|first2 =C.M.|last3 =Mullan|first3 =D.|last4 =De Siena|first4 =L.|last5 =Spagnolo|first5 =M.|year =2018|title =Volcanic impacts on modern glaciers: A global synthesis|journal =Earth-Science Reviews|volume =182|pages =186–203|doi =10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.04.008|bibcode=2018ESRv..182..186B|hdl =2164/12221|hdl-access =free}}

As deepening and widening of the ice cauldrons at Katla volcano, and especially in combination with increased seismic activity, are interpreted as signs of magma inflow, the cauldrons are closely monitored.

{{commons category|Ice cauldrons|Ice cauldron}}

• Subglacial volcano
• Subglacial eruption
• Volcanism of Iceland
• 1996 eruption of Gjálp

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

Category:Volcanism

Category:Glaciers

Category:Volcanism of Iceland

Category:Glaciovolcanism

Category:Subglacial eruptions

Category:Volcano monitoring