Ionized-air glow
{{short description|Optical phenomenon}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
File:Nitrogen discharge tube.jpg
File:Oxygen discharge tube.jpg
File:Plasma-filaments.jpg in air]]
File:Cyclotron with glowing beam.jpg]]
Ionized-air glow is the luminescent emission of characteristic blue–purple–violet light, often of a color called electric blue, by air subjected to an energy flux either directly or indirectly from solar radiation.{{Cite web|title=Airglow|url=https://www.albany.edu/faculty/rgk/atm101/airglow.htm|access-date=2021-12-13|website=www.albany.edu}}
Processes
When energy is deposited in air, the air molecules become excited. As air is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen, excited N2 and O2 molecules are produced. These can react with other molecules, forming mainly ozone and nitrogen(II) oxide. Water vapor, when present, may also play a role; its presence is characterized by the hydrogen emission lines. The reactive species present in the plasma can readily react with other chemicals present in the air or on nearby surfaces.
=Deexcitation of nitrogen=
The excited nitrogen deexcites primarily by emission of a photon, with emission lines in ultraviolet, visible, and infrared band:
:N2* → N2 + hν
The blue light observed is produced primarily by this process.{{cite book |last1=Wiberg |first1=Egon |last2=Wiberg |first2=Nils |last3=Holleman |first3=Arnold Frederick |title=Inorganic chemistry |date=2001 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego, Calif. |isbn=0-12-352651-5 |page=1655 |edition=1st English}} The spectrum is dominated by lines of single-ionized nitrogen, with presence of neutral nitrogen lines.
=Deexcitation of oxygen=
The excited state of oxygen is somewhat more stable than nitrogen. While deexcitation can occur by emission of photons, the more probable mechanism at atmospheric pressure is a chemical reaction with other oxygen molecules, forming ozone:
: O2* + 2 O2 → 2 O3
This reaction is responsible for the production of ozone in the vicinity of strongly radioactive materials and electrical discharges.
Occurrence
Excitation energy can be deposited in air by a number of different mechanisms:
- Ionizing radiation is the cause of blue glow surrounding sufficient quantities of strongly radioactive materials in air, e.g. some radioisotope specimens{{Cite journal |last1=Crompton |first1=Anita J. |last2=Gamage |first2=Kelum A. A. |last3=Jenkins |first3=Alex |last4=Taylor |first4=Charles James |date=April 2018 |title=Alpha Particle Detection Using Alpha-Induced Air Radioluminescence: A Review and Future Prospects for Preliminary Radiological Characterisation for Nuclear Facilities Decommissioning |journal=Sensors |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=1015 |doi=10.3390/s18041015 |doi-access=free |issn=1424-8220 |pmc=5948492 |pmid=29597340|bibcode=2018Senso..18.1015C }} (e.g. radium or polonium), particle beams (e.g. from particle accelerators) in air, the blue flashes during criticality accidents, and the eerie/low brightness "purple" to "blue" glow enveloping a mushroom cloud during the first several dozen seconds after nuclear explosions near sea level. This post-explosion effect has been observed only at night from atmospheric nuclear tests owing to its low brightness, with observers noticing it following the pre-dawn Trinity test,{{cite book |last1=Goodstein |first1=David L. |last2=Goodstein |first2=Judith R. |title=Robert F. Christy: 1916–2012 |series=Biographical Memoirs |date=2013 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |page=7 |url=http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/christy-robert.pdf}}{{cite magazine |title=A Backward Glance: Eyewitnesses to Trinity |url=http://www.lanl.gov/science/weapons_journal/wj_pubs/11nwj2-05.pdf |magazine=Nuclear Weapons Journal |issue=2 |date=2005 |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |access-date=18 February 2014 |page=45 |id=LALP-05-067}}{{cite web |title=Christy, Robert F. Interview by Sara Lippincott. Pasadena, California, June 15, 17, 21, and 22, 1994 |year=1998 |publisher=Oral History Project, California Institute of Technology Archives |url=https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechOH:OH_Christy_R |access-date=5 August 2021 |page=55}}{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JGn4HjH1zns&t=107s |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/JGn4HjH1zns |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|title=The Trinity Test: 'An eery and awesome sight' (9/20) |first=Robert |last=Christy |date=July 6, 2017 |type=Video |publisher=Web of Stories - Life Stories of Remarkable People |via=YouTube |time=1'47"}}{{cbignore}} as well as Upshot-Knothole Annie,{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} Operation Fishbowl,{{cite report |publisher=Defense Nuclear Agency |title=Operation Dominic I: 1962 |id=DNA 6040F |page=247 |url=https://massless.info/images/1962_DNA_6040F.pdf}} and the Cherokee shot of Operation Redwing.Cherokee Field Report Bikini Operations, page 10, quoted in {{cite book |first=Chuck |last=Hansen |title=The swords of Armageddon: U.S. nuclear weapons development since 1945 |location=Sunnyvale, Calif. |publisher=Chukelea Publications |year=1995 |at=1307 |oclc=1109685186}}{{cite news |last1=Bethge |first1=Philip |title=Mushroom Clouds and Everpresent Danger: Surviving Cameramen Recall Nuclear Test Shots |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/mushroom-clouds-and-everpresent-danger-surviving-cameramen-recall-nuclear-test-shots-a-730985.html |work=Der Spiegel |date=2010-11-25 |quote=[Photographer George Yoshitake said] 'For several minutes after the blast, you could see this eerie ultraviolet glow high up in the sky. And I thought that was so spectacular, so meaningful.'{{thin space}}}}
File:Upshot-Knothole Annie 001.jpg nuclear bomb test]]
- Within minutes after the steam explosion that caused the Chernobyl accident at 01:23 local time, employees at the power station went outside to get a clearer view of the extent of the damage. One such survivor, Alexander Yuvchenko, recounts that once he stopped outside and looked up towards the reactor hall he saw a "very beautiful" laser-like beam of light bluish light, caused by the ionization of air, that appeared to be "flooding up into infinity".{{cite magazine |last1=Meyer |first1=C. M. |title=Chernobyl: what happened and why? |magazine=Energize |date=March 2007 |page=41 |url=http://www.eepublishers.co.za/images/upload/Meyer%20Chernobyl%205.pdf |location=Muldersdrift, South Africa |issn=1818-2127 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211073343/http://www.eepublishers.co.za/images/upload/Meyer%20Chernobyl%205.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2013}}{{cite magazine |last1=Bond |first1=Michael |title=Cheating Chernobyl |magazine=New Scientist |date=21 August 2004 |volume=183 |issue=2461 |page=46 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18324615-300-cheating-chernobyl/ |url-access=subscription |issn=0262-4079}}
- Cathode rays in air produce this blue glow.{{cite book |last1=Strutt |first1=R. J. |author1-link=Robert John Strutt |title=The Becquerel rays and the properties of radium |date=2004 |orig-year=Originally published 1906 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=Mineola, N.Y. |isbn=0-486-43875-9 |page=20}}
- Electrical discharge in air is the cause of blue light emitted by electric sparks, lightning, and corona discharges (e.g. St. Elmo's fire).
- Auroras, the sometimes observable blue-violet hues emitted by nitrogen at lower altitudes.
=Colors=
In dry air, the color of produced light (e.g. by lightning) is dominated by the emission lines of nitrogen, yielding the spectrum with primarily blue emission lines. The lines of neutral nitrogen (NI), neutral oxygen (OI), singly ionized nitrogen (NII) and singly ionized oxygen (OII) are the most prominent features of a lightning emission spectrum.{{cite book |last1=Uman |first1=Martin A. |title=Lightning |date=1984 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-486-64575-4 |page=139 |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116300718198/mode/1up |url-access=registration}} Neutral nitrogen radiates primarily at one line in the red part of the spectrum. Ionized nitrogen radiates primarily as a set of lines in the blue part of the spectrum.{{cite book |last1=Uman |first1=Martin A. |title=All about lightning |date=1986 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-486-25237-X |page=96 |url=https://archive.org/details/allaboutlightnin0000uman/mode/1up |url-access=registration}}
A violet hue can occur when the spectrum contains emission lines of atomic hydrogen. This may happen when the air contains high amount of water, e.g. with lightnings in low altitudes passing through rain thunderstorms. Water vapor and small water droplets ionize and dissociate easier than large droplets, therefore have higher impact on color.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}
The hydrogen emission lines at 656.3 nm (the strong H-alpha line) and at 486.1 nm (H-beta) are characteristic for lightnings.{{cite journal |last1=Orville |first1=Richard E. |title=Daylight Spectra of Individual Lightning Flashes in the 370–690 nm Region |journal=Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology |date=1980 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=470–473 |doi=10.1175/1520-0450(1980)019<0470:DSOILF>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1980JApMe..19..470O |doi-access=free }}
Rydberg atoms, generated by low-frequency lightnings, emit at red to orange color and can give the lightning a yellowish to greenish tint.(confusing?){{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}
Generally, the radiant species present in atmospheric plasma are N2, N2+, O2, NO (in dry air) and OH (in humid air). The temperature, electron density, and electron temperature of the plasma can be inferred from the distribution of rotational lines of these species. At higher temperatures, atomic emission lines of N and O, and (in presence of water) H, are present. Other molecular lines, e.g. CO and CN, mark the presence of contaminants in the air.{{cite journal |url=https://www-leland.stanford.edu/group/Zarelab/publinks/725.pdf |doi=10.1088/0963-0252/12/2/301 |title=Optical diagnostics of atmospheric pressure air plasmas |date=2003 |last1=Laux |first1=C. O. |last2=Spence |first2=T. G. |last3=Kruger |first3=C. H. |last4=Zare |first4=R. N. |journal=Plasma Sources Science and Technology |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=125 |bibcode=2003PSST...12..125L|s2cid=250824737 }}
=Cherenkov radiation=
The emission of blue light is often attributed to Cherenkov radiation.{{Verify source|date=August 2021}} Cherenkov radiation is produced by charged particles which are traveling through a dielectric substance at a speed greater than the speed of light in that medium. Despite the production of similarity-colored light and an association with high-energy particles, Cherenkov radiation is generated by a fundamentally different mechanism.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}