Iranian frozen assets
{{Short description|Iranian assets held abroad, frozen by the U.S.}}
Iranian frozen assets in international accounts are calculated to be worth between $100 billion and $120 billion.{{Cite news|last1=Morello|first1=Carol|last2=DeYoung|first2=Karen|date=2016-01-16|title=International sanctions against Iran lifted|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/world-leaders-gathered-in-anticipation-of-iran-sanctions-being-lifted/2016/01/16/72b8295e-babf-11e5-99f3-184bc379b12d_story.html|access-date=2021-11-30|issn=0190-8286|archive-date=2019-01-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114012248/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/world-leaders-gathered-in-anticipation-of-iran-sanctions-being-lifted/2016/01/16/72b8295e-babf-11e5-99f3-184bc379b12d_story.html|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last1=Rothkopf|first1=David|title=Iran's $300 Billion Shakedown|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/16/irans-300-billion-shakedown-sanctions-nuclear-deal/|access-date=28 April 2016|work=Foreign Policy|archive-date=30 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630105104/https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/16/irans-300-billion-shakedown-sanctions-nuclear-deal/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last1=Khajehpour|first1=Bijan|title=What will happen once Iran's assets are unfrozen?|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/05/iran-import-sanctions-investment-consumer-foreign-assets.html|access-date=28 April 2016|work=Al-Monitor|date=26 May 2015|language=en-us|archive-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216050435/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/05/iran-import-sanctions-investment-consumer-foreign-assets.html|url-status=live}} Almost $2 billion of Iran's assets are frozen in the United States.{{cite news|last1=Clawson|first1=Patrick|title=Iran's 'Frozen' Assets: Exaggeration on Both Sides of the Debate|url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/irans-frozen-assets-exaggeration-on-both-sides-of-the-debate|access-date=27 April 2016|work=Washington Institute|archive-date=2 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102185519/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/irans-frozen-assets-exaggeration-on-both-sides-of-the-debate|url-status=live}} According to the Congressional Research Service, in addition to the money locked up in foreign bank accounts, Iran's frozen assets include real estate and other property. The estimated value of Iran's real estate in the U.S. and their accumulated rent is $50 million. Besides the assets frozen in the U.S., some parts of Iran's assets are frozen around the world by the United Nations.
As of January 2021, Iran had frozen assets in the following countries: $7 billion in South Korea; $6 billion in Iraq; $20 billion in China; $1.5 billion in Japan; $1.6 billion in Luxembourg.{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-oil-revenues-factbox/factbox-countries-where-iranian-oil-and-gas-revenues-are-blocked-idUKKBN29A1PB?edition-redirect=uk|title=Factbox-Countries where Iranian oil and gas revenues are blocked|newspaper=Reuters|date=5 January 2021}}
Background
Iran's assets were first frozen by U.S. president Jimmy Carter in 1979, after revolutionaries overthrew the U.S.-allied Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi's administration and took American hostages. After the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the United States ended its economic and diplomatic ties with Iran, banned Iranian oil imports and froze approximately 11 billion 1980-US dollars of its assets.Suzanne Maloney (2010): [http://iranprimer.usip.org/resource/revolutionary-economy "The Revolutionary Economy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129234420/http://iranprimer.usip.org/resource/revolutionary-economy |date=2012-11-29 }}. United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved November 17, 2010.
Some of the assets were then unfrozen in 1981 after the Algiers Accords were signed and the hostage crisis ended.{{dubious|date=December 2016}} At the time of the 1979 revolution, the Pentagon re-sold some $400 million in Iranian military equipment already paid for by the deposed government, and the money was "placed in an escrow account".{{cite news|last1=Garver|first1=Rob|title=Here's what's in Iran's $100 billion in assets that will become unfrozen by the nuclear deal|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/whats-in-irans-100-billion-in-frozen-assets-2015-7|access-date=27 April 2016|work=Business Insider|archive-date=14 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614155109/http://www.businessinsider.com/whats-in-irans-100-billion-in-frozen-assets-2015-7|url-status=live}}
Much of the frozen cash includes Iran's income from selling a limited amount of oil prior to the lifting of the sanctions, when Iran could legally sell oil but could not transfer the money back to Iran, because doing so was illegal under U.S. sanctions.
After nuclear negotiations
Some pages of the JCPOA were dedicated to the listing of individuals and entities whose assets would be unfrozen.
According to Nader Habibi, a professor of economics at Brandeis University, JCPOA will lead to the release of only about $30 billion worth of assets; a similar figure of about $32 billion was estimated by Valiollah Seif, the chief of Iran's central bank.{{cite news|last1=Pearce|first1=Matt|title=Where are Iran's billions in frozen assets, and how soon will it get them back?|url=http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iran-frozen-assets-20160120-story.html|access-date=30 April 2016|work=Los Angeles Times|archive-date=18 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718152617/http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iran-frozen-assets-20160120-story.html|url-status=live}}
According to the Washington Institute in 2015:{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/irans-frozen-assets-exaggeration-on-both-sides-of-the-debate|title=Iran's 'Frozen' Assets: Exaggeration on Both Sides of the Debate|website=www.washingtoninstitute.org|language=en|access-date=2017-06-22|archive-date=2017-06-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627000211/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/irans-frozen-assets-exaggeration-on-both-sides-of-the-debate|url-status=live}} "...the pre-deal asset freeze did not have as much of an impact on the Iranian government as some statements from Washington suggested. And going forward, the post-deal relaxation of restrictions will not have as great an impact as some critics of the deal suggest."
The US government also has seized a Manhattan skyscraper belonging to the Iranian government worth over a billion US dollars.
Seizure of Iranian assets
{{main article|Bank Markazi v. Peterson}}
Deborah Peterson and other plaintiffs brought a lawsuit in U.S. federal court against the Islamic Republic of Iran, and obtained a judgments against Iran for its role in the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings (in which 241 U.S. peacekeepers were killed) and for other acts of international terrorism. While foreign states usually enjoy immunity from claims in court, the plaintiffs invoked an exception to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976 that allows foreign states to be held liable for acts of state-sponsored terrorism.[https://harvardlawreview.org/2016/11/bank-markazi-v-peterson/ Bank Markazi v. Peterson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121064637/https://harvardlawreview.org/2016/11/bank-markazi-v-peterson/ |date=2019-01-21 }}, 130 Harv. L. Rev. 307 (2016). The central bank of Iran, Bank Markazi, challenged the execution of the judgment on various grounds. However, in 2012, Congress passed, and President Barack Obama signed, the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act of 2012, which specified that the judgment in the Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al. would be subject to execution and also abolished Bank Markazi to the execution of judgment. Bank Markazi challenged this statute as unconstitutional, arguing that Congress had unduly interfered with a judicial function by intervening in a specific case; however, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Bank Markazi v. Peterson, ruled 6-2 that Congress's act was constitutional.
Iran had denied any involvement in any of the bombings.{{cite book|last1=Geraghty|first1=Timothy J.|title=Peacekeepers at war : Beirut 1983-the Marine commander tells his story|date=2009|publisher=Potomac Books|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-1-59797-425-7|edition=1st}} Iranian president Hassan Rouhani called the action "blatant robbery".{{cite news|last1=Staff writers|title=Tasnim News Agency – President Rouhani Calls US Seizure of Iran's Assets 'Blatant Robbery'|url=http://www.tasnimnews.com/en/news/2016/04/27/1060071/president-rouhani-calls-us-seizure-of-iran-s-assets-blatant-robbery|access-date=28 April 2016|work=Tasnim News Agency|archive-date=23 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123114603/https://www.tasnimnews.com/en/news/2016/04/27/1060071/president-rouhani-calls-us-seizure-of-iran-s-assets-blatant-robbery|url-status=live}}
Usage of the frozen assets
Since 1980, Iran has demanded that the US, European Union, and South Korea return all of the frozen assets to Iran, but their demands have largely been ignored.{{cite web| url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/inside-the-37-year-standoff-over-irans-frozen-u-s-dollars-1482956855| title = Inside the 37-Year Standoff Over Iran's Frozen U.S. Dollars - WSJ| access-date = 2021-09-21| archive-date = 2021-09-21| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210921163322/https://www.wsj.com/articles/inside-the-37-year-standoff-over-irans-frozen-u-s-dollars-1482956855| url-status = live}} Some of the seized assets have been resold to third parties, while many have been given to families of victims of the regime.{{Cite news|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/whats-in-irans-100-billion-in-frozen-assets-2015-7|title=Here's what's in Iran's $100 billion in assets that will become unfrozen by the nuclear deal|first=Rob|last=Garver|work=Business Insider|access-date=2021-09-21|archive-date=2018-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614155109/http://www.businessinsider.com/whats-in-irans-100-billion-in-frozen-assets-2015-7|url-status=live}} For example, in October 2020, $1.4 billion of frozen cash were awarded in punitive and compensatory damages to the family of Robert Levinson after his abduction and presumed death.{{cite web |last=Hosenball |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Hosenball |date=October 5, 2020 |editor-last=Gregorio |editor-first=David |others=Additional reporting by Jonathan Landay |title=U.S. court orders Iran to pay $1.4 billion in damages to missing former FBI agent's family |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/amp/idUSKBN26Q2YH |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401184454/https://www.reuters.com/article/amp/idUSKBN26Q2YH |archive-date=April 1, 2021 |access-date=April 1, 2021 |website=Reuters}} The return of assets to Iran has also been used as a negotiating tool by the United States. For example, in September 2023, the United States granted Iran access to nearly $6 billion of frozen assets in South Korea as part of a prisoner exchange.{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/10/us/politics/iran-us-prisoner-swap.html|title=U.S. Reaches Deal With Iran to Free Americans for Jailed Iranians and Funds|first=Farnaz|last=Fassihi|first2=Michael|last2=Shear|work=New York Times|access-date=2023-09-20|archive-date=2023-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920042431/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/10/us/politics/iran-us-prisoner-swap.html|url-status=live}}