Irradiation

If administered at appropriate levels, all forms of ionizing radiation can sterilize objects, including medical instruments, disposables such as syringes, and food. Ionizing radiation (electron beams, X-rays and gamma rays){{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/rad_in_food/irradfoodqa/ |title=Food Standards Agency - Irradiated food |access-date=2008-01-26 |archive-date=2012-02-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207123631/http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/rad_in_food/irradfoodqa/ }} may be used to kill bacteria in food or other organic material, including blood.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} Food irradiation, while effective, is seldom used due to lack of public acceptance.[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/02/business/02irradiate.html "Spinach and Peanuts, With a Dash of Radiation"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706012029/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/02/business/02irradiate.html |date=2017-07-06 }} article by Andrew Marin in The New York Times February 1, 2009

{{See also|Blood irradiation therapy}}

Irradiation is used in diagnostic imaging, cancer therapy and blood transfusion.[http://hospital.blood.co.uk/media/28302/160509-27091-irradiated-blood-blc6082p-final.pdf "Information for patients needing irradiated blood"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123154712/http://hospital.blood.co.uk/media/28302/160509-27091-irradiated-blood-blc6082p-final.pdf |date=2018-11-23 }} by National Blood Service

In 2011 researchers found that irradiation was successful in the novel theranostic technique involving co-treatment with heptamethine dyes to elucidate tumor cells and attenuate their growth with minimal side effects.Tan X, Luo S, Wang D, et al. A NIR heptamethine Dye with intrinsic cancer targeting, imaging and photosynthesizing properties. Journal of Biomaterials China. 33-7 (2011), pp. 2230-2239.F. Pene, E. Courtine, A. Cariou, J.P. Mira. Toward theranostics. Crit Care Med, 37 (2009), pp. S50–S58

{{Main|Ion implantation}}

Ion irradiation is routinely used to implant impurities atoms into materials, especially

semiconductors, to modify their properties. This process, usually known

as ion implantation, is an important step in the manufacture of silicon integrated circuits.{{Cite journal|last1=Meldrum|first1=A.|last2=Haglund|first2=R. F. Jr|last3=Boatner|first3=L. A.|last4=White|first4=C. W.|date=2001|title=Nanocomposite Materials Formed by Ion Implantation|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/1521-4095%28200110%2913%3A19%3C1431%3A%3AAID-ADMA1431%3E3.0.CO%3B2-Z|journal=Advanced Materials|language=en|volume=13|issue=19|pages=1431–1444|doi=10.1002/1521-4095(200110)13:19<1431::AID-ADMA1431>3.0.CO;2-Z|issn=1521-4095|url-access=subscription}}

Ion irradiation means in general using particle accelerators to shoot energetic ions on a material.

Ion implantation is a variety of ion irradiation, as is swift heavy ions irradiation from particle accelerators induces ion tracks that can be used for nanotechnology.{{Cite journal|date=2020-12-01|title=Structural, functional and magnetic ordering modifications in graphene oxide and graphite by 100 MeV gold ion irradiation|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0042207X20305613|journal=Vacuum|language=en|volume=182|page=109700|doi=10.1016/j.vacuum.2020.109700|issn=0042-207X|last1=Rawat |first1=Pankaj Singh |last2=Srivastava |first2=R.C. |last3=Dixit |first3=Gagan |last4=Asokan |first4=K. |bibcode=2020Vacuu.18209700R |s2cid=225410221 |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal|last=Andrievskii|first=R. A.|date=2010-09-01|title=Effect of irradiation on the properties of nanomaterials|journal=The Physics of Metals and Metallography|language=en|volume=110|issue=3|pages=229–240|doi=10.1134/S0031918X10090061|bibcode=2010PMM...110..229A |s2cid=136828233 |issn=1555-6190}}

{{Main|Gemstone irradiation}}

{{Annotated image 4 | align=right | caption=Pure diamonds, before and after irradiation treatment
A Initial (2×2 mm size)
B Irradiated by different doses of 2 MeV electrons
C Irradiated by different doses and then annealed at {{convert|800|C}}| image=irrdiamond.jpg| width=220 | height=150 | image-width=220 | image-left=0 | image-top=0

| annotations =

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The irradiation process is widely practiced in jewelry industry{{cite book|last1=Omi |first1=Nelson M. |title=Gemstone Dedicated Gamma Irradiator Development: Proceedings of the INAC 2007 International Nuclear Atlantic Conference |url=https://www.ipen.br/biblioteca/2007/inac/11996.pdf |access-date=October 21, 2022 |first2=Paulo R. |last2=Rela |publisher=Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear |year=2007 |isbn=978-85-99141-02-1 |archive-date=October 21, 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221021175845/https://www.ipen.br/biblioteca/2007/inac/11996.pdf |page=1 }} and enabled the creation of gemstone colors that do not exist or are extremely rare in nature.{{cite book|last1 = Hurlbut|first1 = Cornelius S.|last2 = Kammerling|first2 = Robert C.|title = Gemology|year = 1991|publisher = Wiley-Interscience |url=https://batch.libretexts.org/print/Letter/Finished/geo-3164/Full.pdf|archive-date=November 4, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104150452/https://batch.libretexts.org/print/Letter/Finished/geo-3164/Full.pdf |isbn=0-471-52667-3 |access-date=November 4, 2022 |url-status=live| via=LibreTexts |page=170 }} However, particularly when done in a nuclear reactor, the processes can make gemstones radioactive. Health risks related to the residual radioactivity of the treated gemstones have led to government regulations in many countries.{{citation|url = https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/irradiated-gemstones.html|title = Backgrounder on Irradiated Gemstones |author=Nuclear Regulatory Commission |publisher = The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission|date=April 2019 |access-date = November 12, 2022 |archive-date=September 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901040847/http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/irradiated-gemstones.html |url-status=live}} {{USGovernment}}

Irradiation is used to cross-link plastics. Due to its efficiency, electron beam processing is often used in the irradiation treatment of polymer-based products to improve their mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties, and often to add unique properties. Cross-linked polyethylene pipe (PEX), high-temperature products such as tubing and gaskets, wire and cable jacket curing, curing of composite materials, and crosslinking of tires are a few examples.

{{main|Atomic gardening|Food irradiation}}

{{Further|Mutation breeding}}

After its discovery by Lewis Stadler at the University of Missouri, irradiation of seed and plant germplasm has resulted in creating many widely-grown cultivars of food crops worldwide.{{cite journal |last1=Ahloowalia |first1=B.S. |last2=Maluszynski |first2=M. |last3=Nichterlein |first3=K. |date=2004 |title=Global impact of mutation-derived varieties |journal=Euphytica |volume=135 |issue=2 |pages=187–204 |doi=10.1023/B:EUPH.0000014914.85465.4f |s2cid=34494057 }} The process, which consists of striking plant seeds or germplasm with radiation in the form of X-rays, UV waves, heavy-ion beams, or gamma rays, essentially induce lesions of the DNA, leading to mutations in the genome. The UN has been an active participant through the International Atomic Energy Agency. Irradiation is also employed to prevent the sprouting of certain cereals, onions, potatoes and garlic.Bly, J.H. "Electron Beam Processing", Yardley, PA: International Information Associates, 1988. Appropriate irradiation doses are also used to produce insects for use in the sterile insect technique of pest control.[http://www-ididas.iaea.org/IDIDAS/default.htm International Database on Insect Disinfestation and Sterilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328020125/http://www-ididas.iaea.org/IDIDAS/default.htm |date=2010-03-28 }}, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture website, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, plus the International Atomic Energy Agency.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) recognizes irradiation as an important technology to protect consumers. Fresh meat and poultry including whole or cut up birds, skinless poultry, pork chops, roasts, stew meat, liver, hamburgers, ground meat, and ground poultry are approved for irradiation.[https://web.archive.org/web/20130105210704/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Fact_Sheets/Irradiation_and_Food_Safety/index.asp Irradiation and Food Safety], U.S. Drug and Food Administration. Retrieved Jan. 5, 2010.

{{Further|Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko}}

{{See also|:Category:Deaths by acute radiation syndrome}}

Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, who died of lung cancer in Bucharest on March 19, 1965, may have been intentionally irradiated during a visit to Moscow, due to his political stance.{{cite web|url=http://thefinalphaseforum.invisionzone.com/lofiversion/index.php/t1487-50.html|title=TFP > Alexander Litvinenko Assassination|access-date=2009-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110701081808/http://thefinalphaseforum.invisionzone.com/lofiversion/index.php/t1487-50.html|archive-date=2011-07-01}}

In 1999, an article in Der Spiegel alleged that the East German MfS intentionally irradiated political prisoners with high-dose radiation, possibly to provoke cancer.[http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-13395385.html STASI: In Kopfhöhe ausgerichtet.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106090019/http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-13395385.html |date=2013-11-06 }} Article by Peter Wensierski in Der Spiegel 20/1999, May 17, 1999[http://www.jf-archiv.de/archiv00/160yy47.htm Tödliche Strahlung. Die Staatssicherheit der DDR steht im Verdacht, Regimegegner radioaktiv verseucht zu haben.] Article by Paul Leonhard in Junge Freiheit April 14, 2000

Alexander Litvinenko, a secret serviceman who was tackling organized crime in Russia, was intentionally poisoned with polonium-210; the very large internal doses of radiation he received caused his death.

In the nuclear industry, irradiation may refer to the phenomenon of exposure of the structure of a nuclear reactor to neutron flux, making the material radioactive and causing irradiation embrittlement,[https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/euratom-materials-ageing-research-emar-knowledge-base/emar-synthesis-reports/reactor-systems-gen-iiiii-lto/1-materials-ageing-irradiation-embrittlement/11-introduction_en Materials Ageing – Irradiation Embrittlement]. EU Science Hub accessed Jan 2023){{cite book | chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081009062000070 | doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-100906-2.00007-0 | chapter=Irradiation effects in Generation IV nuclear reactor materials | title=Structural Materials for Generation IV Nuclear Reactors | year=2017 | last1=Aitkaliyeva | first1=A. | last2=He | first2=L. | last3=Wen | first3=H. | last4=Miller | first4=B. | last5=Bai | first5=X.M. | last6=Allen | first6=T. | pages=253–283 | osti=1476305 | isbn=978-0-08-100906-2 }} or irradiation of the nuclear fuel.

During the 2001 anthrax attacks, the US Postal Service irradiated mail to protect members of the US government and other possible targets. This was of some concern to people who send digital media through the mail, including artists. According to the ART in Embassies program, "incoming mail is irradiated, and the process destroys slides, transparencies and disks."{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}

• Dose area product
• Radiolyse

{{reflist}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929192750/http://www.oes.ca.gov/WebPage/oeswebsite.nsf/Content/52E1085599CBC64B8825740C0062BBE3?OpenDocument Industrial, Medical & Educational Uses of Radiation]
• [https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/radiation/index.html Safety and Health Topics: Radiation]
• [http://www.epa.gov/radiation/ Radiation Protection- US EPA]
• [http://www.iaea.org/ International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)]
• [http://www.northamericanseedbank.com/ North American Seed Bank (NASB)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229075534/http://northamericanseedbank.com/ |date=2018-12-29 }}

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Category:Nuclear technology

Category:Radiobiology