Islamic family jurisprudence#Adoption and fostering

{{Main|Baligh}}

In Islamic legal terminology, bāligh ({{langx|ar|بالغ}}, adult) or mukallaf ({{langx|ar|مكلف}}, responsible) of muhallaq ({{langx|ar|محلاق}}, tendril, mentally matured) or murahiq ({{Langx|ar|مراهق}}, frequently errant, evildoer in a hurry) or muhtalim ({{langx|ar|محتلم}}, pubescent) refers to someone who has reached maturity or puberty, and has full responsibility under Islamic law.{{cite book |last1=Amanat |first1=Abbas |last2=Griffel |first2=Frank |title=Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context |date=2007 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-7953-1 |page=100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9nWaVJeYOgcC&q=mukallaf&pg=PA100 |access-date=24 May 2020 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Netton |first1=Ian Richard |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-17960-1 |page=110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bYtmAgAAQBAJ&q=bulugh+islam&pg=PA110 |access-date=24 May 2020 |language=en}}{{cite book |title=Elementary Education and Motivation in Islam |date=2010 |publisher=Cambria Press |isbn=978-1-62196-932-7 |pages=21, 25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdaLbLKJ9CkC&q=puberty+islam&pg=PA25 |access-date=24 May 2020 |language=en}}{{Cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Judith E.|author-link=Judith E. Tucker|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DzYXUCLfaRgC&q=rahiq+puberty&pg=PA155|title=In the House of the Law: Gender and Islamic Law in Ottoman Syria and Palestine|last2=Tucker|publisher=University of California Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-520-21039-4|page=155|language=en}}

In Islam, human life is divided into two parts, the first is before adolescence or childhood, when man is considered innocent, and the second is after adolescence (bulugiyat) or adulthood, when the Islamic law is fully applied to man and the hereafter is judged. If a person dies before he becomes an adult, he is considered to be in heaven.

According to Islamic jurists, human irads or niyah or qasd or free will, aqal or ability to judge right and wrong, and courage are formed before the age of puberty (Tamyiz) and between the age of puberty, and after the age of puberty (Taklif), his intellect (Aql), that is, wisdom and judgment, attains perfection. Therefore, from childhood, that is, before the age of seven, the child is taught the Kitab or knowledge, Adab or etiquette, Ibadat or worship and Taharat or cleanliness, because at this time the child is easily fit to receive education.{{cite book |last1=Meri |first1=Josef W. |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |date=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&q=puberty+islam&pg=PA150 |access-date=24 May 2020 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Tarazi |first1=Norma |title=The Child in Islam |date=1995 |publisher=American Trust Publications |isbn=978-0-89259-158-9 |pages=129, 131, 132|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7pMCwAAQBAJ&q=puberty+islam+taharah&pg=PA129 |access-date=24 May 2020 |language=en}}

{{Main|Islamic marital jurisprudence|Marriage in Islam}}

In Islamic law (sharia), marriage (nikāḥ نکاح) is a legal and social contract between two individuals.{{cite web | url=http://www.al-islam.org/islamic-marriage-syed-athar-husain-sh-rizvi/importance-marriage-islam | title=Importance of Marriage in Islam | date=22 October 2012 | publisher=al-islam.org | access-date=10 June 2015}} Marriage is an act of Islam{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2002.02.0006:sura=4:verse=4|title=The Quran, sura 4, verse 4|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}} and is strongly recommended.{{cite web| url=http://www.onislam.net/english/ask-about-islam/ethics-and-values/muslim-character/166329-marriage-is-the-prophets-sunnah.html | title=Is Marriage the Prophet's Sunnah? | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016191102/http://www.onislam.net/english/ask-about-islam/ethics-and-values/muslim-character/166329-marriage-is-the-prophets-sunnah.html | archive-date=2015-10-16}} Polygyny is permitted in Islam under some conditions, but polyandry is forbidden.{{cite web |url=http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article308231.ece |title=Women in polygamous marriages suffering psychological torture - Arab News |access-date=2011-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311202547/http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article308231.ece |archive-date=2011-03-11 }}

In Islam, marriage ({{langx|ar|نِكَاح|Nikāḥ}}) is a legal contract between a man and a woman. Both the groom and the bride are to consent to the marriage of their own free wills. A formal, binding contract – verbal or on paper{{Cite web |url=https://nikah101.com/getting_married.html |title=Getting Married |access-date=2018-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004225955/https://nikah101.com/getting_married.html |archive-date=2018-10-04 |url-status=live }} – is considered integral to a religiously valid Islamic marriage, and outlines the rights and responsibilities of the groom and bride. Divorce in Islam can take a variety of forms, some executed by a husband personally and some executed by a religious court on behalf of a plaintiff wife who is successful in her legal divorce petition for valid cause.

In addition to the usual marriage until death or divorce, there is a different fixed-term marriage known as zawāj al-mutʻah ("pleasure marriage")Wehr, Hans. [http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=1058,ll=2783,ls=38,la=4127,sg=968,ha=718,pr=145,vi=350,mgf=779,mr=647,mn=1306,aan=617,kz=2459,ulq=1576,uqa=389,uqw=1523,umr=1012,ums=848,umj=778,uqq=365,bdw=829,amr=594,asb=911,auh=1501,dhq=525,mht=842,msb=221,tla=92,amj=766,ens=287,mis=2024,br=890 Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: a compact version of the internationally recognized fourth edition]. Ed. JM Cowan. New York: Spoken Language Services, Inc., 1994. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619052549/http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=1058,ll=2783,ls=38,la=4127,sg=968,ha=718,pr=145,vi=350,mgf=779,mr=647,mn=1306,aan=617,kz=2459,ulq=1576,uqa=389,uqw=1523,umr=1012,ums=848,umj=778,uqq=365,bdw=829,amr=594,asb=911,auh=1501,dhq=525,mht=842,msb=221,tla=92,amj=766,ens=287,mis=2024,br=890 |date=2017-06-19 }}. Print.{{rp|page=1045}} permitted only by the Twelver branch of Shi'ite Islam for a pre-fixed period.Berg, H. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SxPyHsFzNMIC&q=Mutah+of+marriage&pg=PA165 "Method and theory in the study of Islamic origins"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509211138/https://books.google.com/books?id=SxPyHsFzNMIC&pg=PA165&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=Mutah%20of%20marriage&f=false |date=2016-05-09 }} Brill 2003 {{ISBN|9004126023}}, 9789004126022. Accessed at Google Books 15 March 2014.Hughes, T. [https://books.google.com/books?id=O84eYLVHvB0C&dq=Mutah&pg=PA424 "A Dictionary of Islam."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423230922/https://books.google.com/books?id=O84eYLVHvB0C&pg=PA424&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TOtbUaCjLMjOrQeZ6IHwAw&ved=0CFkQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false |date=2016-04-23 }} Asian Educational Services 1 December 1995. Accessed 15 April 2014.{{rp|page=242}}Pohl, F. [https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&dq=Mutah&pg=PA50 "Muslim world: modern Muslim societies"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624115230/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&pg=PA50&dq=Mutah&hl=en&sa=X&ei=l0VdUeCnM4ajiAfXnoCgCQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Mutah&f=false |date=2016-06-24 }} Marshall Cavendish, 2010. {{ISBN|0761479279}}, 1780761479277. pp. 47–53. There is also Nikah Misyar, a non-temporary marriage with the removal of some conditions such as living together, permitted by some Sunni scholars.{{cite web|quote=In a misyar marriage the woman waives some of the rights she would enjoy in a normal marriage. Most misyar brides don't change their residences but pursue marriage on a visitation basis. |url=http://www.arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/news/642991 |title=Misyar now a widespread reality |work=Arab News |date=12 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218025556/http://www.arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/news/642991 |archive-date=2017-02-18}}{{cite book|first= Elie |last= Elhadj|title=The Islamic Shield: Arab Resistance to Democratic and Religious Reforms| year=2006|publisher=Universal Publishers|isbn=978-1-59942-411-8| page=51}}{{cite journal|journal=Al-Raida |issue=92–99|page=58|title=Misyar Marriage|publisher=Beirut University College, Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World |year=2001}}

{{Main|Islamic sexual jurisprudence}}

Islamic sexual jurisprudence ({{langx|ar|الفقه الجنسي الإسلامي}}, {{transliteration|ar|alfaqah aljinsiu al'iislamiat}})

is a part of family,{{cite book |last1=Mallat |first1=Chibli |last2=Connors |first2=Jane Frances |title=Islamic Family Law |date=1990 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-1-85333-301-9 |pages=55, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goEwYQVb6HIC&q=sexual&pg=PA31 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}} marital,{{cite book |last1=Cohn-Sherbok |first1=Dan |last2=Chryssides |first2=George D. |last3=El-Alami |first3=Dawoud |title=Love, Sex and Marriage: Insights from Judaism, Christianity and Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd |isbn=978-0-334-04405-5 |pages=XX, 88, 182, 196 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LO-b2FxcBswC&q=Islam |language=en}} hygienical{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Aftab |title=Sex & Sexuality in Islam |date=2006 |publisher=Nashriyat |isbn=978-969-8983-04-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRTYAAAAMAAJ&q=islam+family+sex |access-date=26 May 2020 |page=296|language=en}} and criminal jurisprudence{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Christie S. |title=Islamic Criminal Law: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-980604-1 |pages=10, 11, 12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFnZtem-HTQC&q=islamic+sexual+jurisprudence&pg=PA10 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Zia |first1=Afiya Shehrbano |title=Sex Crime in the Islamic Context: Rape, Class and Gender in Pakistan |date=1994 |publisher=ASR |isbn=978-969-8217-23-5 |pages=7, 9, 32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=se_ZAAAAMAAJ&q=islam+sex+criminal |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}} of Islam that concerns the Islamic laws of sexuality in Islam, as largely predicated on the Qur'an, the sayings of Muhammad (hadith) and the rulings of religious leaders' (fatwa) confining sexual activity to marital relationships between men and women.{{cite book |last1=Rassool |first1=G. Hussein |title=Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-44125-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_QsCgAAQBAJ&q=islamic+sexual+jurisprudence&pg=PA75 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Sexual Ethics and Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith, and Jurisprudence |date=2016 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-78074-853-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gB29DwAAQBAJ&q=editions%3AISBN1851684565 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}} While most traditions discourage celibacy, all encourage strict chastity, modesty and privacy with regard to any relationships between genders, holding forth that their intimacy as perceived within Islam{{spaced ndash}}encompassing a swath of life broader than sexual activity{{spaced ndash}}is largely reserved for marriage. This sensitivity to gender difference, gender seclution and modesty outside of marriage can be seen in current prominent aspects of Islam, such as interpretations of Islamic dress and degrees of gender segregation.{{cite book |last1=Shah |first1=Saeeda |title=Education, Leadership and Islam: Theories, discourses and practices from an Islamic perspective |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-05254-6 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afUWCgAAQBAJ&q=sex+segregation+islam&pg=PA96 |access-date=26 May 2020 |language=en}}

{{main|Islamic criminal jurisprudence|Zina}}

Islamic criminal law ({{langx|ar|فقه العقوبات}}) is criminal law in accordance with Sharia. Strictly speaking, Islamic law does not have a distinct corpus of "criminal law". It divides crimes into three different categories depending on the offense – Hudud (crimes "against God",{{cite book|last1=Dammer|first1=Harry|last2=Albanese|first2=Jay|title=Comparative Criminal Justice Systems|date=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning.|page=60|edition=5th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H6qs5a_6EE8C&q=hudood+crimes+against+god&pg=PA60|access-date=19 May 2015 |isbn=978-1-285-06786-5}} whose punishment is fixed in the Quran and the Hadiths), Qisas (crimes against an individual or family whose punishment is equal retaliation in the Quran and the Hadiths), and Tazir (crimes whose punishment is not specified in the Quran and the Hadiths, and is left to the discretion of the ruler or Qadi, i.e. judge).[https://web.archive.org/web/20081101103325/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0170 Criminal Law], Oxford Islamic Studies, Oxford University Press (2013){{cite book|author=Mohamed S. El-Awa|date=1993|title= Punishment in Islamic Law|publisher=American Trust Publications|isbn=978-0-89259-142-8|pages=1–68}}{{cite book|author=Silvia Tellenbach|year=2015|title=The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law|editor=Markus D. Dubber and Tatjana Hornle |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-967359-9|pages=251–253}} Some add the fourth category of Siyasah (crimes against government),{{cite journal|last=Tabassum|first=Sadia|title=Combatants, not bandits: the status of rebels in Islamic law|journal=International Review of the Red Cross|date=20 April 2011|volume=93|issue=881|pages=121–139|doi=10.1017/S1816383111000117|s2cid=56196822}} while others consider it as part of either Hadd or Tazir crimes.{{cite book|author=Omar A. Farrukh|date=1969|title=Ibn Taimiyya on Public and Private Law in Islam or Public Policy in Islamic Jurisprudence|oclc=55624054}}M. Cherif Bassiouni (1997), "Crimes and the Criminal Process", Arab Law Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 3 (1997), pp. 269-286

Zinā ({{lang|sd|زِنَاء}}) or zina ({{lang|ar|زِنًى}} or {{lang|ar|زِنًا}}) is an Islamic legal term referring to unlawful sexual intercourse.{{cite encyclopedia|first=Elyse|last=Semerdjian|title=Zinah|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0984|url-access=subscription|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-530513-5}} According to traditional jurisprudence, zina can include adultery{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Shahnaz |title=Zina, Transnational Feminism, and the Moral Regulation of Pakistani Women |date=2011 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-4118-4 |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IfJl4J7MAgC&q=adultery+fornication+zina&pg=PA8 |access-date=13 July 2019 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Akande |first1=Habeeb |title=A Taste of Honey: Sexuality and Erotology in Islam |date=2015 |publisher=Rabaah Publishers |isbn=978-0-9574845-1-1 |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKyPCgAAQBAJ&q=adultery+fornication+zina&pg=PA145 |language=en}} (of married parties), fornication (of unmarried parties),

prostitution,{{cite book |last1=Meri |first1=Josef W. |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index |date=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-96692-4 |page=646 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&q=prostitution+zina&pg=PA646 |language=en}} rape, sodomy, homosexuality,{{cite web |author1=Mohd Izwan bin Md Yusof |author2=Muhd. Najib bin Abdul Kadir |author3=Mazlan bin Ibrahim |author4=Khader bin Ahmad |author5=Murshidi bin Mohd Noor |author6=Saiful Azhar bin Saadon |title=Hadith Sahih on Behaviour of LGBT |url=http://www.islam.gov.my/images/ePenerbitan/Hadis-hadis_Sahih_Berkaitan_Perlakuan_LGBT_BI.pdf |website=islam.gov.my |publisher=Government of Malaysia |access-date=26 July 2019 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Habib |first1=Samar |title=Islam and Homosexuality |date=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-37903-1 |page=211 |edition= 1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9y_TyzK9_5oC&q=homosexuality+zina&pg=PA211 |access-date=12 July 2019 |language=en}} incest,{{cite book |last1=Clarke |first1=Morgan |title=Islam and New Kinship: Reproductive Technology and the Shariah in Lebanon |date=2009 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-84545-432-6 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MwreDKOTXM8C&q=incest+zina&pg=PA42 |access-date=13 July 2019 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Kamali |first1=Mohammad Hashim |title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: A Fresh Interpretation |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-091064-8 |page=94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNGaDwAAQBAJ&q=incest+zina&pg=PA94 |access-date=13 July 2019 |language=en}} and bestiality.{{cite book |last1=Semerdjian |first1=Elyse |title="Off the Straight Path": Illicit Sex, Law, and Community in Ottoman Aleppo |date=2008 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-5155-0 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZzuBMnBKfUC&q=bestiality+zina&pg=PA53 |access-date=13 July 2019 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Syed |title=Law relating to fornication (Zina) in the Islamic legal system: a comparative study |date=1999 |publisher=Andhra Legal Decisions |page=3,71,142 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N24mAQAAIAAJ&q=bestiality+zina |language=en}} Although classification of homosexual intercourse as zina differs according to legal school,{{Cite encyclopedia|first=R. |last= Peters | year= 2012 | title=Zinā or Zināʾ |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition= 2nd|publisher=Brill |editor=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs|doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_8168 }} the majority apply the rules of zinā to homosexuality,{{cite book |last1=Kamali |first1=Mohammad Hashim |title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: A Fresh Interpretation |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-091064-8 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNGaDwAAQBAJ&q=homosexuality+zina&pg=PA91 |language=en}}{{cite book |last1=Zuhur |first1=Sherifa |last2=Cözümler |first2=Kadının İnsan Hakları--Yeni |last3=Ways |first3=Women for Women's Human Rights New |title=Gender, sexuality and the criminal laws in the Middle East and North Africa: a comparative study |date=2005 |publisher=WWHR - New Ways |isbn=978-975-92677-2-8 |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1a0AAAAIAAJ&q=homosexuality+zina |language=en}} mostly male homosexuality.{{cite book |last1=Kugle |first1=Scott Siraj al-Haqq |title=Homosexuality in Islam: Critical Reflection on Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Muslims |title-link=Homosexuality in Islam: Critical Reflection on Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Muslims |date=2010 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-028-7 |language=en}} The Quran disapproved of the promiscuity prevailing in Arabia at the time, and several verses refer to unlawful sexual intercourse, including one that prescribes the punishment of 100 lashes for fornicators. Four witnesses are required to prove the offense. Zina thus belongs to the class of hadd (pl. hudud) crimes which have Quranically specified punishments.

Although stoning for zina is not mentioned in the Quran, all schools of traditional jurisprudence agreed on the basis of hadith that it is to be punished by stoning if the offender is muhsan (adult, free, Muslim, and having been married), with some extending this punishment to certain other cases and milder punishment prescribed in other scenarios. The offenders must have acted of their own free will. According to traditional jurisprudence, zina must be proved by testimony of four eyewitnesses to the actual act of penetration, or a confession repeated four times and not retracted later. Rape was traditionally prosecuted under different legal categories which used normal evidentiary rules.A. Quraishi (1999), Her honour: an Islamic critique of the rape provisions in Pakistan's ordinance on zina, Islamic studies, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 403–431 Making an accusation of zina without presenting the required eyewitnesses is called qadhf ({{lang|ar|القذف}}), which is itself a hadd crime.{{cite book|last1=Peters|first1=Rudolph|title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law:: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79670-5|page=63}}DeLong-Bas, Wahhabi Islam, 2004: 89–90

{{main|Islam and children}}

The topic of Islam and children includes the rights of children in Islam, the duties of children towards their parents, and the rights of parents over their children, both biological and foster children. Also discussed are some of the differences regarding rights with respect to different schools of thought.

{{main|Islamic adoptional jurisprudence|Rada (fiqh)}}

Raḍā or riḍāʿa ({{langx|ar|رضاع, رضاعة}}  {{IPA|ar|rɪˈdˤɑːʕ(æ)|pron}}, "breastfeeding") is a technical term in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) of family meaning "the suckling which produces the legal impediment to marriage of foster-kinship",Giladi, Infants, Parents and Wet Nurses: Medieval Islamic Views on Breastfeeding and Their Social Implications, {{ISBN|90-04-11223-5}}, p. 69 and refers to the fact that under Sunni jurispurdence, a wet nurse is considered related to the infant she nurses.

The term derives from the infinitive noun of the Arabic word radiʿa or radaʿa ("he sucked the breast of his mother"). Often it is translated as "fosterage" or "milk kinship".G. J. H. van Gelder, Close Relationships: Incest and Inbreeding in Classical Arabic Literature, {{ISBN|1-85043-855-2}}, p. 93

The concept of radāʿ derives from Islamic and pre-Islamic notions concerning the state of blood relations whereby a wet nurse (and her close relations) and the baby she is nursing (and his or her close family) are deemed related to one another (a status known as mahram) through the act of breastfeeding. One important consequence is that the wet nurse and her family are forbidden to marry the baby and members of the baby's family (e.g. the nursling's biological brother with the milk-mother's biological daughter). Conversely, the milk-relationship allows usually forbidden familiarities between the two groups, (e.g. if the nursling is male, when he becomes an adult he may view the milk-mother and her close female relatives unveiled or in private, exactly as if he were a relation).{{cite web |last1=Gondal |first1=Abdullah |title=EP65: The Quran: Questioning Infallibility, Shattering Taboos (33:10-37:00) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAN90_Yo2nQ |website=Secular Jihad |access-date=15 November 2019 |date=31 August 2018}}

{{main|Divorce in Islam}}

{{See also|Khul'|Zihar|Iddah}}

Divorce in Islam can take a variety of forms, some initiated by the husband and some initiated by the wife. The main traditional legal categories are talaq (repudiation), khulʿ (mutual divorce), judicial divorce and oaths. The theory and practice of divorce in the Islamic world have varied according to time and place.

{{cite encyclopedia|author=Maaike Voorhoeve|title=Divorce. Modern Practice|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Women|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-976446-4|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199764464.001.0001/acref-9780199764464-e-0108|url-access=subscription |access-date=2017-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204102020/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199764464.001.0001/acref-9780199764464-e-0108|archive-date=2017-02-04|url-status=live}}

Historically, the rules of divorce were governed by sharia, as interpreted by traditional Islamic jurisprudence, though they differed depending on the legal school, and historical practices sometimes diverged from legal theory.

{{cite encyclopedia|author=Maaike Voorhoeve |title=Divorce. Historical Practice|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Women|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-976446-4|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199764464.001.0001/acref-9780199764464-e-0108|url-access=subscription |access-date=2017-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204102020/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199764464.001.0001/acref-9780199764464-e-0108|archive-date=2017-02-04|url-status=live}}

In modern times, as personal status (family) laws were codified, they generally remained "within the orbit of Islamic law", but control over the norms of divorce shifted from traditional jurists to the state.

{{cite web|author=Dehlvi, Ghulam Rasool|url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/triple-talaq-muslim-law-board-should-take-cues-from-divorce-rules-in-22-islamic-nations-not-delay-reforms-3382416.html|title=Triple talaq: Muslim law board should take cues from divorce rules in 22 'Islamic nations', not delay reforms|publisher=Firstpost|date=13 April 2017|access-date=2017-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415103940/http://www.firstpost.com/india/triple-talaq-muslim-law-board-should-take-cues-from-divorce-rules-in-22-islamic-nations-not-delay-reforms-3382416.html|archive-date=2017-04-15|url-status=live}}

{{Main|Islamic Inheritance jurisprudence}}

Islamic Inheritance jurisprudence is a field of Islamic jurisprudence ({{langx|ar|فقه}}) that deals with inheritance, a topic that is prominently dealt with in the Qur'an. It is often called Mīrāth, and its branch of Islamic law is technically known as ʿilm al-farāʾiḍ ({{langx|ar|علم الفرائض}}, "the science of the ordained quotas").{{Cite encyclopedia | edition = 2nd| publisher = Brill Academic Publishers| volume = 7| pages = 106–113| last = Schacht| first = Joseph| title = Mīrāth| encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Islam| isbn = 90-04-09419-9| year = 1991}}

Heirs referred to as primary heirs are always entitled to a share of the inheritance, they are never totally excluded. These primary heirs consist of the spouse relict, both parents, the son and the daughter. All remaining heirs can be totally excluded by the presence of other heirs. But under certain circumstances, other heirs can also inherit as residuaries, namely the father, paternal grandfather, daughter, agnatic granddaughter, full sister, consanguine sister and mother.[http://www.islam101.com/sociology/inheritance.htm Islamic Laws of Inheritance]{{spaced ndash}}Dr. Abid Hussain Those who inherit are usually categorized into three groups:

1. Quota-heirs (dhawu al-farāʾḍ), This group includes four males and eight females.{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Islamic Jurisprudence|publisher=Kuwait Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs|volume=3|page=30}} The male quota-heirs are the husband, father, paternal grandfather and maternal brother. The females quot-heirs are the wife, daughter, granddaughter, mother, grandmother, full sister, paternal sister and maternal sister. However, there are scenarios that could move the daughter, granddaughter, father, grandfather, full siblings and paternal siblings to the second group ('asaba).
2. Members of the ʿaṣaba (residuaries), usually a combination of male (and sometimes female) relatives that inherit as residuaries after the shares of the Quota-heirs is distributed.
3. Extended family members (dhawu al arham): This includes any blood relative who is not a quot-heir or 'asaba (residuary). Examples include maternal grandfather, aunts, nieces and female cousins.

• Fiqh
• Wali (Islamic legal guardian)

{{Reflist}}

{{Islam topics}}