Japanese conjugation#Perfective

{{main|Japanese godan and ichidan verbs}}

File:Hiragana-Katakana-Gojuuon.jpg

For Japanese verbs, the verb stem remains invariant among all conjugations. However, conjugation patterns vary according to a verb's category. For example, {{nihongo krt||知る|shiru}} and {{nihongo krt||着る|kiru}} belong to different verb categories (godan and ichidan, respectively) and therefore follow different conjugation patterns. As such, knowing a verb's category is essential for conjugating Japanese verbs.

Japanese verbs can be allocated into three categories:{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|pp=86-88|loc="Lesson 3, Grammar 1: Verb Conjugation"}}

1. {{nihongo|Godan verbs|五段動詞|godan-dōshi|literally: "five‑row verbs"}}, also known as "pentagrade verbs"
2. {{nihongo|Ichidan verbs|一段動詞|ichidan-dōshi|literally: "one‑row verbs"}}, also known as "monograde verbs"
3. Irregular verbs, most notably: {{nihongo krt|to do|する|suru}} and {{nihongo krt|to come|来る|kuru}}

Verbs are conjugated from their "dictionary form", where the final kana is either removed or changed in some way.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|pp=86-88|loc="Lesson 3, Grammar 1: Verb Conjugation"}} From a technical standpoint, verbs usually require a specific conjugational stem (see § Verb bases, below) for any given inflection or suffix. With godan verbs, the conjugational stem can span all five rows of the gojūon kana table (hence, the classification as a pentagrade verb). Ichidan verbs are simpler to conjugate: the final kana, which is always {{nihongo krt||る|ru}}, is simply removed or replaced with the appropriate inflectional suffix. This means ichidan verb stems, in themselves, are valid conjugational stems which always end with the same kana (hence, the classification as a monograde verb).

This phenomenon can be observed by comparing conjugations of the two verb types, within the context of the gojūon table.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

|-

! rowspan="5" style="border-top:none;" |

! Negative

! {{nihongo krt||ま|ma}}

| {{lang|ja|読まない}}
{{nihongo|||yomanai}}

! Negative

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|みない}}{{ref|verbgroups1|*}}
{{nihongo|||minai}}

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|止めない}}
{{nihongo|||tomenai}}

|-

! Polite

! {{nihongo krt||み|mi}}

| {{lang|ja|読みます}}
{{nihongo|||yomimasu}}

!Polite

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|みます}}{{ref|verbgroups1|*}}
{{nihongo|||mimasu}}

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|止めます}}
{{nihongo|||tomemasu}}

|-

! Dictionary
(no conjugation)

! {{nihongo krt||む|mu}}

| {{lang|ja|読む}}
{{nihongo|||yomu}}

!Dictionary

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|みる}}{{ref|verbgroups1|*}}
{{nihongo|||miru}}

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|止める}}
{{nihongo|||tomeru}}

|-

! Potential

! {{nihongo krt||め|me}}

| {{lang|ja|読める}}
{{nihongo|||yomeru}}

!Potential

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|みられる}}{{ref|verbgroups1|*}}
{{nihongo|||mirareru}}

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|止められる}}
{{nihongo|||tomerareru}}

|-

! Volitional

! {{nihongo krt||も|mo}}

| {{lang|ja|読もう}}
{{nihongo|||yomō}}

!Volitional

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|みよう}}{{ref|verbgroups1|*}}
{{nihongo|||miyō}}

| style="text-align:center;" | {{lang|ja|止めよう}}
{{nihongo|||tomeyō}}

|}

: {{note label|verbgroups1|*}} These forms are given here in hiragana for illustrative purposes; they would normally be written with kanji as {{lang|ja|見ない}}, {{lang|ja|見ます}} etc.

As visible above, the godan verb {{nihongo3|to read|読む|yomu}} has a static verb stem, {{nihongo3||読〜|yo-}}, and a dynamic conjugational stem which changes depending on the purpose: {{nihongo3||読ま〜|yoma-|row 1}}, {{nihongo3||読み〜|yomi-|row 2}}, {{nihongo3||読む|yomu|row 3}}, {{nihongo3||読め〜|yome-|row 4}} and {{nihongo3||読も〜|yomo-|row 5}}. Unlike godan verb stems, ichidan verb stems are also functional conjugational stems, with the final kana of the stem remaining static in all conjugations.

{{anchor|終止形|shūshikei|shushikei|連体形|rentaikei|未然形|mizenkei|連用形|ren'yōkei|ren'yokei|renyokei|音便形|onbinkei|意志形|ishikei|命令形|meireikei|可能形|kanōkei|kanokei|仮定形|kateikei|已然形|izenkei}}

Conjugable words (verbs, i‑adjectives, and na‑adjectives) are traditionally considered to have six possible {{nihongo|conjugational stems or bases|活用形|katsuyōkei|extra=literally "conjugation forms"}} .{{sfn|McClain|1981|pp=5-6|loc="Verbs: Functions of Six Bases"}} However, as a result of the language evolving,{{sfn|Nakano|2008|pp=103-105|loc="2.可能表現の形態とその内容の変遷ー動作主体性の発達" (Potential)}}{{sfn|Miyake|2016|loc="可能形" (Potential)}} historical sound shifts,{{sfn|Nakamura|2009|loc="音便形" (Euphonic Change)}}{{sfn|Sakaki|2019|loc="音便形" (Euphonic Change)}} and the post‑WWII spelling reforms,{{sfn|Koyanagi|2014|loc="意志形" (Volitional)}} three additional sub‑bases have emerged for verbs (seen in the table below as the Potential, Tentative, and Euphonic bases). Meanwhile, verbs no longer differentiate between the {{nihongo|terminal form|終止形|shūshikei|extra=used to terminate a predicate}} and the {{nihongo|attributive form|連体形|rentaikei|extra=used to modify a noun or noun phrase}} bases (these bases are only distinguished for na‑adjectives in the modern language, see Japanese adjectives).{{sfn|McClain|1981|p=6|loc="Verbs: 3. Third Base" (終止形/連体形; Conclusive/Attributive Base)}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=580-581|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Adjectives)}} Verb bases function as the necessary stem forms to which inflectional suffixes attach.

Verbs are named and listed in dictionaries according to their {{nihongo|"dictionary form"|辞書形|jishokei}}. This is also called the "plain form" (since this is the plain, non‑polite, non‑past conjugation), and it is the same as the modern {{nihongo|"terminal form"|終止形|shūshikei}}, and the {{nihongo|"attributive form"|連体形|rentaikei}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}} The verb group (godan, ichidan, or irregular) determines how to derive any given conjugation base for the verb. With godan verbs, the base is derived by shifting the final kana along the respective vowel row of the gojūon kana table. With ichidan verbs, the base is derived by removing or replacing the final {{nihongo krt||る|ru}} kana.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

The table below illustrates the various verb bases across the verb groups, with the patterns starting from the dictionary form.{{sfn|McClain|1981|pp=6-13|loc="Verbs: Conjugation Charts"}}

: {{note label|verbbases1|[i]}} The verb {{nihongo krt||来る|kuru}} has no dedicated kanōkei base. Instead, the passive form {{nihongo krt||来られる|korareru}} is used to express the potential sense. {{nihongo krt||する}} lacks a kanōkei base; instead, the suppletive ichidan verb {{nihongo krt||できる|dekiru}} is used as the potential form of {{nihongo krt||する}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}{{sfn|McClain|1981|p=38-46|loc="Verb-Following Expressions: I. Expressions which follow the First Base of the Verb"}} See also the § Passive: Conjugation table section below.

: {{note label|verbbases2|[ii]}} {{nihongo krt||〜ろ|-ro}} is used for the spoken imperative form, while {{nihongo krt||〜よ|-yo}} is used for the written imperative form.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|p=578|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs: Footnote 7)}}

: {{note label|verbbases3|[iii]}} The meaning of the term {{nihongo krt||未然形|mizenkei|extra=irrealis}} originates from its archaic usage with the conditional {{nihongo krt||〜ば|-ba}} suffix in Old Japanese and Classical Japanese.{{sfn|Shirane|2005|pp=24-25|loc="3.1 The Six Inflected Forms"}} The conjugated forms in the modern language, such as the passive and causative forms, do not invoke an irrealis mood, but the term mizenkei was retained.

: {{note label|verbbases4|[iv]}} The mizenkei base for verbs ending in {{nihongo krt||〜う|-u}} appears to be an exceptional case with the unexpected {{nihongo krt||〜わ|-wa}}. This realization of {{Transliteration|ja|-wa}} is a leftover from past sound changes, an artifact preserved from the archaic Japanese {{Transliteration|ja|-fu}} from {{Transliteration|ja|-pu}} verbs (which would have yielded, regularly, {{Transliteration|ja|-wa}} from {{Transliteration|ja|-fa}} from {{Transliteration|ja|-pa}}). This is noted with historical kana orthography in dictionaries; for example, {{nihongo krt||言う|iu}} from {{nihongo krt||言ふ|ifu}} from {{Transliteration|ja|ipu}} and {{nihongo krt||言わぬ|iwanu}} from {{nihongo krt||言はぬ|ifanu}} (from {{Transliteration|ja|ipanu}}).{{sfn|Chamberlain|1888|p=148|loc="The Verb: Peculiarities of the First Conjugation ¶ 239"}} In modern Japanese, original instances of mid‑word consonant [w] have since been dropped before all vowels except [a].{{sfn|Chamberlain|1888|p=148|loc="The Verb: Peculiarities of the First Conjugation ¶ 239"}}{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|pp=232-233|loc="Lesson 22, Grammar 1: Causative Sentences"}}{{sfn|McClain|1981|p=8-11|loc="Verbs: Conjugation of Japanese Verbs: II. Consonant-stem verbs"}} (For more on this shift in consonants, see {{slink|Old Japanese#Consonants}}, {{slink|Early Middle Japanese#Consonants}}, and {{slink|Late Middle Japanese#/h/ and /p/}}.)

: {{note label|verbbases5|[v]}} There are three mizenkei bases for the verb {{nihongo krt||する|suru}}, depending on the resulting conjugated form: {{nihongo krt||さ|sa}} for passive and causative forms, {{nihongo krt||し|shi}} for the negative and volitional forms, and {{nihongo krt||せ|se}} for the negative continuous form.{{sfn|McClain|1981|p=10-11|loc="Verbs: Conjugation of Japanese Verbs: III. Irregular verbs"}}

Of the nine verb bases, the shūshikei/rentaikei, meireikei, and ren'yōkei bases can be considered fully conjugated forms without needing to append inflectional suffixes. In particular, the shūshikei/rentaikei and meireikei bases do not conjugate with any inflectional suffixes. By contrast, a verb cannot be considered fully conjugated in its kateikei, mizenkei, ishikei, kanōkei, or onbinkei base alone; a compatible inflectional suffix is required for that verb construction to be grammatical.{{sfn|McClain|1981|pp=39-86|loc="Verb-Following Expressions"}}

Certain inflectional suffixes, in themselves, take on the form of verbs or i‑adjectives. These suffixes can then be further conjugated by adopting one of the verb bases, followed by the attachment of the appropriate suffix. The agglutinative nature of Japanese verb conjugation can thus make the final form of a given verb conjugation quite long. For example, the word {{nihongo krt||食べさせられたくなかった|tabesaseraretakunakatta}} is broken down into its component morphemes below:

There are three modern verb base forms that are considered to be derived from older forms. These are the potential, volitional, and euphonic sub‑bases, as shown in the Verb base formation table above.

As with all languages, the Japanese language has evolved to fulfil the contemporary needs of communication. The potential form of verbs is one such example. In Old Japanese and Early Middle Japanese, potential was expressed with the verb ending {{Nihongo krt||ゆ|yu}}, which was also used to express the passive voice ("to be done") and the spontaneous voice ("something happens on its own"). This evolved into the modern passive ending {{Nihongo krt||（ら）れる|-(ra)reru}}, which can similarly express potential and spontaneous senses. As usage patterns changed over time, different kinds of potential constructions emerged, such as the grammatical pattern of the rentaikei base + {{nihongo3||〜ことができる|-koto ga dekiru}}, and also via the kanōkei base.{{sfn|Nakano|2008|pp=103-105|loc="2.可能表現の形態とその内容の変遷ー動作主体性の発達" (Potential)}} The historical development of the kanōkei base is disputed, however the consensus is that it stemmed from a shift wherein transitive verbs developed an intransitive sense similar to the spontaneous, passive, and potential, and these intransitive forms conjugated in the {{Nihongo krt|lower bigrade conjugation pattern|下二段活用|shimo nidan katsuyō}} of the Classical Japanese of the time.{{sfn|Miyake|2016|loc="可能形" (Potential)}} The lower bigrade conjugation pattern evolved into the modern ichidan pattern in modern Japanese, and these stems for godan verbs have the same form as the hypothetical stems in the table above.

The mizenkei base that ends with {{Transliteration|ja|-a}} was also used to express the volitional mood for {{nihongo|yodan verbs|四段動詞|yodan-dōshi|"Class‑4 verbs"}} in Old Japanese and Middle Japanese, in combination with volitional suffix {{Nihongo krt||む|-mu}}. Sound changes caused the resulting -amu ending to change: {{IPA|/-amu/}} → {{IPA|/-ãu/}} → {{IPA|/-au/}} (like English "ow") → {{IPA|/-ɔː/}} (like English "aw") → {{IPA|/-oː/}}. The post‑WWII spelling reforms updated spellings to reflect this and other sound changes, resulting in the addition of the ishikei or volitional base, ending with {{Transliteration|ja|-o}}, for the volitional mood of yodan verbs. This also resulted in a reclassification of "yodan verbs" to {{nihongo|"godan verbs"|五段動詞|godan-dōshi|"Class‑5 verbs"}}.{{sfn|Koyanagi|2014|loc="意志形" (Volitional)}}{{sfn|McClain|1981|p=6|loc="Verbs: 6. Sixth Base" (推量形 Tentative Base)}}

The ren'yōkei base also underwent various euphonic changes specific to the perfective and conjunctive (te) forms for certain verb stems,{{sfn|McClain|1981|p=17-18|loc="Verbs: How to form Ta- and Te-form of Verbs: II. Consonant stem verbs"}}{{sfn|Nakamura|2009|loc="音便形" (Euphonic Change)}}{{sfn|Sakaki|2019|loc="音便形" (Euphonic Change)}} giving rise to the onbinkei or euphonic base.{{sfn|Digital Daijisen Dictionary: Onbinkei}} In the onbinkei base, the inflectional suffixes for godan verbs vary according to the last kana of the verb's ren'yōkei base.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

{{see also|Japanese grammar#Copula (だ da)}}

The copula or "to be" verb in Japanese is a special case. This comes in two basic forms, {{nihongo krt||だ|da}} in the plain form and {{nihongo krt||です|desu}} in the polite form. These are generally used to predicate sentences, equate one thing with another (i.e. "A is B."), or express a self‑directed thought (e.g. a sudden emotion or realization).{{sfn|Lombardo et al.|2019}}

The Japanese copula is not a standard 'verb' and conjugations are limited to a smaller subset of functions. Furthermore, this conjugates according to its own specific patterns:{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=580-581|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Adjectives)}}

: {{note label|copula1|[i]}} {{nihongo krt||じゃ|ja}} is a colloquial abbreviation of {{nihongo krt||では|de wa}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=580-581|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Adjectives)}}

: {{note label|copula2|[ii]}} Although {{nihongo krt||だろう|darō}} and {{nihongo krt||でしょう|deshō}} were originally conjugations of {{nihongo krt||だ|da}} and {{nihongo krt||です|desu}} respectively, they are now also used as auxiliary verbs.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=100-102|loc="Main Entries: darō だろう"}}

The {{lang|ja|だ}} negative forms, {{nihongo krt||じゃない|ja nai}} and {{nihongo krt||ではない|de wa nai}}, are compatible with all negative valence conjugations (such as the negative past tense or the negative -te form).{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=580-581|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Adjectives)}} However, the {{lang|ja|です}} negative forms, {{nihongo krt||じゃありません|ja arimasen}} and {{nihongo krt||ではありません|de wa arimasen}}, are conjugated into the past tense by appending {{nihongo krt||でした|deshita}} as a suffix (and are therefore incompatible with subsequent {{nihongo krt||〜ない|-nai}} conjugations).{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=580-581|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Adjectives)}} Furthermore, the perfective forms, {{nihongo krt||だった|datta}} and {{nihongo krt||でした|deshita}}, are compatible with the ~tara conditional.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=452-457|loc="Main Entries: ~tara 〜たら"}}

{{anchor|Imperfect|Dictionary form}}

The imperfective form (also known as the "non‑past", "plain form", "short form", "dictionary form" and the "attributive form") is broadly equivalent to the present and future tenses of English. In Japanese, the imperfective form is used as the headword or lemma. It is used to express actions that are assumed to continue into the future, habits or future intentions.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|pp=190-191|loc="Lesson 8, Grammar 1: Short Forms"}}

The imperfective form cannot be used to make a progressive continuous statement, such as in the English sentence "I am shopping". To do so, the verb must first be conjugated into its te form and attached to the {{nihongo krt||いる|iru}} auxiliary verb {{See below|{{section link||te form: Grammatical compatibility}}, below}}.

The imperfective form uses the shūshikei/rentaikei base, and is thus equivalent to the dictionary form.

: {{note label|imperfective1|[i]}} For godan verbs ending in {{nihongo krt||〜る|-ru}}, the imperfective conjugation, or dictionary form, is the simplest form which is syncretic with ichidan verbs.

The imperfective form can be used to issue prohibitive commands by attaching {{nihongo krt||〜な|-na}}.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|p=234|loc="Lesson 22, Grammar 3: Verb Stem + なさい"}} For example, {{nihongo krt|"Do not enter!"|入るな！|hairu na!}}.

Additionally, the imperfective form is compatible with the nominalizers {{nihongo krt||〜の|-no}} and {{nihongo krt||〜こと|-koto}}, which repurpose the verb as a noun. For example, {{nihongo krt|Singing at karaoke is fun!|カラオケで歌うのは楽しい！|karaoke de utau no wa tanoshii!}}.

The negative form is broadly equivalent to the English word "not".{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|pp=190-191|loc="Lesson 8, Grammar 1: Short Forms"}}

The negative form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||ない|nai}} suffix.

: {{note label|negative1|[i]}} For godan verbs ending in {{nihongo krt||〜う|-u}}, the "{{lang|ja|う}}" changes to {{nihongo krt||"わ"|wa}} in the negative conjugation. It does not change to {{nihongo krt||"あ"|a}}.

: {{note label|negative2|[ii]}} The negative past form of {{lang|ja|〜ます}} is {{nihongo krt|did not|〜ませんでした|-masen deshita}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

The negative form is compatible with the {{nihongo krt||～で|-de}} particle for additional functions, such as requesting someone to cease/desist or joining a subordinate clause.

It is also compatible with i‑adjective inflections, since the {{nihongo krt||～ない|-nai}} suffix ends with {{nihongo krt||～い|-i}}.

The negative continuous form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||〜ず|zu}} suffix; equivalent to replacing {{nihongo krt||〜ない|-nai}} with {{nihongo krt||〜ず|-zu}} in the table above. An exception is {{nihongo krt|to do|する|suru}}, which instead conjugates as {{nihongo krt|not doing|せず|sezu}}. In this form, the negative continuous cannot terminate a sentence. The verb has the "negative continuous tense" unless followed by the {{nihongo krt||に|ni}} particle, where its meaning changes to "without". The {{Transliteration|ja|-zuni}} form ({{lang|ja|〜ずに}}, without doing) is semantically interchangeable with {{nihongo3|without doing|〜ないで|-naide}}. However, {{Transliteration|ja|-zuni}} is only used in written Japanese or formal speech.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=271-273|loc="Main Entries: ~nai de 〜ないで"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1995|pp=315-317|loc="Main Entries: -nu ぬ"}}

{{anchor|過去形|kakokei|完了形|kanryōkei|kanryokei}}

The {{nihongo|perfective form|過去形・完了形|kakokei / kanryōkei|also known as the "ta form", "past tense" and the "perfect tense"}} is equivalent to the English "past tense".{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|p=214|loc="Lesson 9, Grammar 1: Past Tense Short Forms"}}

The perfective form is created by using the onbinkei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||た・だ|ta/da}} suffix. This conjugation pattern is more complex compared to other conjugations because the exact realization of the inflectional suffix—particularly in godan verbs—is based on the {{nihongo|euphony|音便|onbin}} of the verb stem. (See also: Euphonic changes)

: {{note label|perfective1|[i]}} {{nihongo krt|to die|死ぬ|shinu}} is the only verb with the {{nihongo krt||ぬ|nu}} suffix, in the entire Japanese vocabulary.

: {{note label|perfective2|[ii]}} The negative perfective form of {{lang|ja|〜ます}} is {{nihongo krt|did not|〜ませんでした|-masen deshita}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

The perfective form is compatible with:

• {{anchor|tari form|tari-tari form|tari-tari-suru form}} The "tari form" (or "tari‑tari form", also known as the "tari‑tari‑suru form"), to describe a non‑exhaustive list of actions (similar to {{lang|ja|AやB}} describes a non‑exhaustive lists of objects). It uses {{nihongo krt||り|ri}} as the subordinate conjunction.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|pp=259-260|loc="Lesson 11, Grammar 2: 〜たり〜たりする"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=458-461|loc="Main Entries: ~tari ~tari suru 〜たり〜たりする"}}
• {{anchor|tara form|tara conditional|past conditional}} The "tara form" (or "past conditional"), to describe events that will happen as a result of completing something. It uses {{nihongo krt||ら|ra}} as the subordinate conjunction.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=119-121|loc="Lesson 17, Grammar 3: 〜たら"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=452-457|loc="Main Entries: ~tara 〜たら"}}
• It can be used to mean "if" or "when";
• It can also be used to reveal an unexpected outcome that happened in the past.

{{anchor|て形|tekei}}

The {{nihongo|te form|て形|tekei}} allows verbs to function like conjunctions. Similar to the word "and" in English, the te form connects clauses to make longer sentences. Conversely, as a sentence terminal, it functions as a casual instruction (like a gentle imperative command). Finally, the te form attaches to a myriad of auxiliary verbs for various purposes.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|pp=150-151|loc="Lesson 6, Grammar 1: Te-form"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=464-467|loc="Main Entries: -te て"}}

There are limitations where the te form cannot be used to conjugate between pairs of verbs (such as when two verbs are unrelated) and the conjunctive form is used instead.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1995|pp=556-560|loc="Main Entries: Vmasu"}} {{See below|{{section link||Conjunctive form vs te form}}, below}}

The te form is created by using the onbinkei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||て・で|te/de}} suffix. Just like the perfective form, this conjugation pattern is more complex compared to other conjugations because the exact realization of the inflectional suffix—particularly in godan verbs—is based on the {{nihongo|euphony|音便|onbin}} of the verb stem. (See also: Euphonic changes)

: {{note label|teform1|[i]}} {{nihongo krt|to die|死ぬ|shinu}} is the only verb with the {{nihongo krt||ぬ|nu}} suffix, in the entire Japanese vocabulary.

: {{note label|teform2|[ii]}} This conjugation is not reciprocated in the perfective form; the past tense of {{nihongo krt||ない|-nai}} is {{nihongo krt|was not|なかった|-nakatta}}.

: {{note label|teform3|[iii]}} {{anchor|ないで|naide}} The {{nihongo krt||〜ないで|-nai de}} form is only grammatical with verbs. It is used to emphasize negation, or otherwise used as an imperative if an auxiliary follows, e.g. {{nihongo krt|Please don't...|〜ないで下さい|-nai de kudasai}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=271-273|loc="Main Entries: ~nai de 〜ないで"}}

: {{note label|teform4|[iv]}} The {{nihongo krt||〜なくて|-nakute}} form is grammatical with adjectives and copula, but also with verbs when expressing a consequential human emotion or contradiction.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=271-273|loc="Main Entries: ~nai de 〜ないで"}}

The te form is compatible with particles for additional functions, such as giving permission or expressing prohibition.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|p=152|loc="Lesson 6, Grammar 4: 〜てもいいです, Grammar 5: 〜てはいけません"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=464-467|loc="Main Entries: -te て"}}

{{anchor|te form: Auxiliary verbs}}

The te form is also compatible with an extensive list of auxiliary verbs. These auxiliary verbs are attached after the {{lang|ja|〜て}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|p=593|loc="Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions: F. Vte+__"}}

: {{note label|teform5|[v]}} Colloquially, the {{nihongo krt||い|i}} is dropped. For example, {{nihongo krt||持っている|motte iru}} becomes {{nihongo krt||持ってる|motte ru}}.

: {{note label|teform6|[vi]}} Colloquially, {{nihongo krt||てお〜|te o-}} undergoes morpheme fusion, becoming {{nihongo krt||と〜|to-}}. For example, {{nihongo krt||作っておく|tsukutte oku}} becomes {{nihongo krt||作っとく|tsukuttoku}}.

: {{note label|teform7|[vii]}} In this case, {{lang|ja|て}} is dropped rather than being attached to {{lang|ja|ちゃう}}. This is because {{nihongo krt||ちゃう|chau}} is a morpheme fusion of {{nihongo krt||ちまう|chimau}}, which itself is a morpheme fusion of {{nihongo krt||てしまう|te shimau}}. Similarly, {{nihongo krt||で|de}} is also dropped when attaching to {{nihongo krt||じゃう|jau}} and {{nihongo krt||じまう|jimau}}, which are the morpheme fusions of {{nihongo krt||でしまう|de shimau}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=403-406|loc="Main Entries: shimau しまう"}}

{{anchor|te form: Requests}}

Finally, the te form is necessary for making polite requests with {{nihongo krt||下さる|kudasaru}} and {{nihongo krt||くれる|kureru}}. These honorific words are attached with their imperative forms {{nihongo krt||〜下さい|-kudasai}} and {{nihongo krt||〜くれ|-kure}}, which is more socially proper than using the true imperative.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|p=151|loc="Lesson 6, Grammar 2: 〜てください"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|p=593|loc="Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions: F. Vte+__"}}

During speech, the speaker may terminate a sentence in the te form but slightly lengthen the vowel sound as a natural pause: {{nihongo krt||てぇ|te...}}. Similar to when a sentence ends with "so..." in English, this serves as a social cue that can:

• give the listener a moment to process;
• indicate the speaker is not finished speaking;
• seek permission from the listener to continue;
• imply that the listener should infer the remainder of the sentence.

Another usage of the te form is, just as with English, the order of clauses may be reversed to create emphasis. However, unlike in English, the sentence will terminate on the te form (rather than between clauses).

The conjunctive form (also known as the "stem form", "masu form", "i form" and the "continuative form"){{sfn|Tofugu: Stem Form}} functions like an intermediate conjugation; it requires an auxiliary verb to be attached since the conjunctive form is rarely used in isolation. It can also function to link separate clauses (hence the name "conjunctive") in a similar way to the te form above; however usage of the conjunctive form as a conjunction has restrictions. The conjunctive form can function as a gerund (a verb functioning as a noun) without the need for nominalizers, although permissible use cases are limited.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=589-590|loc="Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions: B. Vmasu+__"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1995|pp=556-560|loc="Main Entries: Vmasu"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1995|pp=561-563|loc="Main Entries: Vmasu as a Noun"}}{{sfn|Kim|2017|loc="Polite Form and Verb Stems"}}

The conjunctive form uses the ren'yōkei base. It is one of the simplest conjugation patterns due to its lack of irregular conjugations. It does have an additional case for certain honorific verbs, but even those follow a consistent conjugation pattern.

: {{note label|conjunctive1|[i]}} The English translations use the "-ing" suffix for nominalization. Therefore, they are nouns, not present continuous verbs.

: {{note label|conjunctive2|[ii]}} Other honorific words, such as {{nihongo krt|to be|ござる|gozaru}}, {{nihongo krt|to come/go|いらっしゃる|irassharu}} and {{nihongo krt|to do|なさる|nasaru}}, also conjugate with this pattern.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

{{anchor|Conjunctive: Particles}}

The conjunctive form is compatible with particles for additional functions, such as expressing purpose{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=297-299|loc="Main Entries: ni⁵ に"}} or a firm avoidance.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1995|pp=564-567|loc="Main Entries: wa は"}}

{{anchor|Conjunctive: Auxiliary verbs}}

The conjunctive form is also compatible with an extensive list of auxiliary verbs.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=589-590|loc="Appendix 4 Connection Forms of Important Expressions: B. Vmasu+__"}} One of which, {{nihongo krt||ます|masu}}, has highly irregular inflections.{{sfn|Kamermans|2010|p=70|loc="Verb grammar — § 2.3 Noun inflection"}}{{sfn|Kamiya|2001|p=36|loc="Auxiliaries"}}{{sfn|McClain|1981|p=13|loc="Conjugation of Suffix masu ます"}}

{{anchor|Conjunctive form vs te form}}

The conjunctive form, like the te form, connects clauses in a similar way to how "and" does in English. However, the conjunctive and te forms are not usually interchangeable, and each form fulfills specific grammatical purposes. When a pair of verbs have a strong connection in context, only the te form can bridge them. When a pair of verbs are not directly related but happen during a shared period of time, only the conjunctive form can bridge them. Furthermore, if a pair of verbs are both controllable or uncontrollable in nature, the te form must bridge them; otherwise, when a verb is controllable whilst the other verb is uncontrollable, the conjunctive form must bridge them. Finally, the te and conjunctive forms are interchangeable if additional information is included between the verbs.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1995|pp=556-560|loc="Main Entries: Vmasu"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=464-467|loc="Main Entries: -te て"}}

In the case where the conjunctive form is interchangeable with the te form, there is a stylistic means where the conjunctive form is preferred. This avoids {{nihongo krt||「て...て...て...」|te...te...te...}} repetition, much like how English users might avoid saying "and...and...and...". In practice however, such a strategy is more readily accustomed to writing and more difficult to control in spoken conversation (where the te form is usually elected for every verb).{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1995|pp=556-560|loc="Main Entries: Vmasu"}}

{{anchor|Conjunctive: Compound words}}

Another common usage is to form compound words, specifically compound nouns and compound verbs. As for compound nouns, the conjunctive form attaches as a prefix to another noun. Compound verbs are formed in the same way, except the conjunctive form attaches to the imperfective form. This pattern can be used to express mutuality if a transitive verb attaches to {{nihongo krt|to unite|〜合う|-au}}.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1995|p=626|loc="Appendix 2 Compound Verbs"}}

The conjunctive form is also used in formal honorifics, such as {{nihongo krt|"Please use this."|お使い下さい|o tsukai kudasai}}.

The volitional form (also known as the "conjectural form", "tentative form", "presumptive form" and the "hortative form") is used to express speaker's will or intention (volitional), make an inclusive command or invitation (hortative or persuasive){{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=74-75|loc="Lesson 15, Grammar 1: Volitional Form"}} or to make a guess or supposition (presumptive).

The volitional form is created by using the ishikei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||う・よう|u/yō}} suffix. Phonetically, う is surfaced as {{nihongo krt||お|o}} in volitional form, unlike う in dictionary/imperfective form; for example, {{nihongo krt|to ask|問う|tou}} and {{nihongo krt|let's ask|問おう|toō}}.

: {{note label|volitional1|[i]}} Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

The volitional form is also used to describe intention {{nihongo krt||〜と思う|-to omou}}{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|p=75|loc="Lesson 15, Grammar 2: Volitional Form + と思っています"}} an attempt {{nihongo krt||〜とする|-to suru}} or an imminent action {{nihongo krt||〜としている|-to shite iru}}.{{sfn|Lampkin|2010|pp=14-40}}

{{anchor|受身形|ukemikei}}

The {{nihongo|passive form|受身形|ukemikei}} refocuses the verb as the target objective of a sentence; it emphasizes the action as the detail of importance. Although a sentence can include a specific subject enacting the passive verb, the subject is not required.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=33-35|loc="Characteristics of Japanese Grammar: 5. Passive"}} The passive voice can nuance neutrality, a regrettable action (suffering passive) or a means of being respectful.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=210-212|loc="Lesson 21, Grammar 1: Passive Sentences"}}

The passive form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||れる・られる|reru/rareru}} suffix. For ichidan verbs and {{nihongo krt||来る|kuru}}, the passive form and the potential form have an identical conjugation pattern with the same {{nihongo krt||られる|rareru}} suffix. This makes it impossible to distinguish whether an ichidan verb adopts a passive or potential function without contextual information.

: {{note label|passive1|[i]}} For godan verbs ending in {{nihongo krt||〜る|-ru}}, the passive conjugation is syncretic with ichidan verbs.

: {{note label|passive2|[ii]}} For godan verbs ending in {{nihongo krt||〜う|-u}}, the "{{lang|ja|う}}" changes to {{nihongo krt||"わ"|wa}} in the passive conjugation. It does not change to {{nihongo krt||"あ"|a}}.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=210-212|loc="Lesson 21, Grammar 1: Passive Sentences"}}

: {{note label|passive3|[iii]}} Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

After conjugating into the passive form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a passive verb (e.g. {{nihongo krt|be said|言われる|iwareru}}) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the {{nihongo|te form|て形|te kei}} to join sequential statements ({{nihongo krt||言われて|iwarete}}), or the conjunctive form to append the polite {{nihongo||〜ます|-masu}} auxiliary verb ({{nihongo krt||言われます|iwaremasu}}).

{{anchor|使役形|shiekikei}}

The {{nihongo|causative form|使役形|shiekikei}} is used to express that a subject was forced or allowed to do something.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=232-233|loc="Lesson 22, Grammar 1: Causative Sentences"}}

: {{note label|causative1|[i]}} The director causing the action can be specified with the {{nihongo krt ||は|wa}} or {{nihongo krt ||が|ga}} particle, whilst the people forced to do the action are specified with the {{nihongo krt ||に|ni}} particle.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=232-233|loc="Lesson 22, Grammar 1: Causative Sentences"}}

The causative form is created by using the mizenkei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||せる・させる|seru/saseru}} suffix.

: {{note label|causative2|[ii]}} The causative form has a shortened variation, where the {{nihongo krt||〜せる|-seru}} suffix undergoes morpheme fusion and becomes {{nihongo krt||〜す|-su}}; however, the short form is less commonly used than the standard conjugation.{{sfn|Tofugu: 〜させる (Causative)}}

: {{note label|causative3|[iii]}} For godan verbs ending in {{nihongo krt||〜う|-u}}, the "{{lang|ja|う}}" changes to {{nihongo krt||"わ"|wa}} in the causative conjugation. It does not change to {{nihongo krt||"あ"|a}}.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=232-233|loc="Lesson 22, Grammar 1: Causative Sentences"}}

: {{note label|causative4|[iv]}} Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

After conjugating into the causative form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a causative verb (e.g. {{nihongo krt|caused to say|言わせる|iwaseru}}) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the {{nihongo|te form|て形|te kei}} to join sequential statements ({{nihongo krt||言わせて|iwasete}}), or the conjunctive form to append the polite {{nihongo||〜ます|-masu}} auxiliary verb ({{nihongo krt||言わせます|iwasemasu}}).

The causative passive form expresses that a reluctant subject was positioned (or forced) into doing something they would rather avoid. The causative passive form is obtained by conjugating a verb into its causative form and further conjugating it into the passive form. However, because words such as {{nihongo krt||待たせられる|mataserareru}} are considered difficult to pronounce, the conjugational suffix is often contracted in colloquial speech. Specific to godan verbs only, the {{nihongo krt||せら〜|sera-|from {{lang|ja|せられる}}}} contracts into {{nihongo krt||さ〜|sa-}}.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=254-255|loc="Lesson 23, Grammar 1: Causative-passive Sentences"}}

The imperative form functions as firm instructions do in English. It is used to give orders to subordinates (such as within military ranks, or towards pet animals) and to give direct instructions within intimate relationships (for example, within family or close friends). When directed towards a collective rather than an individual, the imperative form is used for mandatory action or motivational speech.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|p=234|loc="Lesson 22, Grammar 3: Verb Stem + なさい"}} The imperative form is also used in reported speech.

File:Stop sign 202412, Machida.jpg{{clear|left}}

However, the imperative form is perceived as confrontational or aggressive when used for commands; instead, it is more common to use the te form (with or without the {{nihongo krt|please do|〜下さい|-kudasai}} suffix), or the conjunctive form's polite imperative suffix, {{nihongo krt||〜なさい|-nasai}}.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|p=234|loc="Lesson 22, Grammar 3: Verb Stem + なさい"}}

The imperative form uses the meireikei base.

: {{note label|imperative1|[i]}} {{nihongo krt||〜ろ|-ro}} is used for the spoken imperative form, while {{nihongo krt||〜よ|-yo}} is used for the written imperative form.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|p=578|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs: Footnote 7)}}

: {{note label|imperative2|[ii]}} Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=576-579|loc="Appendix 1 Basic Conjugations" (Verbs)}}

Non‑volitional verbs, such as {{nihongo krt|to understand|分かる|wakaru}} and {{nihongo krt|to be able|できる|dekiru}}, have imperative forms (for these two verbs, {{nihongo krt||分かれ|wakare}} and {{nihongo krt||できろ|dekiro}}), but these appear to be relatively recent innovations, and usage may be limited to informal contexts.

The potential form describes the capability of doing something.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=27-28|loc="Lesson 13, Grammar 1: Potential Verbs"}} It is also used to ask favors from others, just as "Can you...?" does in English. However, unlike in English, the potential form does not request permission; the phrase {{nihongo krt|"Can I eat this apple?" |この林檎が食べられる？|kono ringo ga taberareru?}} is always understood to mean "Do I have the ability to eat this apple?" or "Is this apple edible?" (but never "May I eat this apple?" ).

For transitive verbs, the potential form uses the {{nihongo krt||が|ga}} particle to mark direct objects, instead of the {{nihongo krt||を|o}} particle.

The potential form is created by using the kanōkei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||る・(ら)れる|ru/(ra)reru}} suffix. {{nihongo krt|to do|する|suru}} has its own suppletive potential form {{nihongo krt|can do|出来る|dekiru}}. For ichidan verbs and {{nihongo krt||来る|kuru}}, the potential form and the passive form have an identical conjugation pattern with the same {{nihongo krt||られる|rareru}} suffix. This makes it impossible to distinguish whether an ichidan verb adopts a passive or potential function without contextual information.

However, in colloquial speech the {{nihongo krt||ら|ra}} is removed from {{nihongo krt||られる|rareru}} in a phenomenon known as {{nihongo krt||ら抜き言葉|ranuki kotoba}}.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=27-28|loc="Lesson 13, Grammar 1: Potential Verbs"}} For example, {{nihongo krt|can come|こられる|korareru}} becomes {{nihongo krt||これる|koreru}}. This contraction is specific to the potential form, and is not reciprocated in the passive form.

: {{note label|potential1|[i]}} For godan verbs ending in {{nihongo krt||〜る|-ru}}, the potential conjugation is syncretic with the colloquial form of ichidan verbs.

: {{note label|potential2|[ii]}}Theoretical conjugation only; it's unnatural and not usually used. {{nihongo krt||分かる|wakaru}} expresses potential innately without having to conjugate it to the potential form.

After conjugating into the potential form, the verbs become ichidan verbs. They can therefore be further conjugated according to any ichidan pattern. For instance, a potential verb (e.g. {{nihongo krt|can say|言える|ieru}}) can conjugate using the ichidan pattern for the {{nihongo|te form|て形|te kei}} to join sequential statements ({{nihongo krt||言えて|iete}}), or the conjunctive form to append the polite {{nihongo||〜ます|-masu}} auxiliary verb ({{nihongo krt||言えます|iemasu}}).

The conditional form (also known as the "hypothetical form", "provisional form" and the "provisional conditional eba form") is broadly equivalent to the English conditionals "if..." or "when...". It describes a condition that provides a specific result, with emphasis on the condition.{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020b|pp=234-235|loc="Lesson 22, Grammar 4: 〜ば"}} The conditional form is used to describe hypothetical scenarios or general truths.{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=81-83|loc="Main Entries: ba ば"}}

The conditional form is created by using the kateikei base, followed by the {{nihongo krt||ば|ba}} suffix.

: {{note label|conditional1|[i]}} For godan verbs ending in {{nihongo krt||〜る|-ru}}, the conditional conjugation is syncretic with ichidan verbs.

: {{note label|conditional2|[ii]}} Colloquially the {{nihongo krt||〜なければ|-nakereba}} form is contracted to {{nihongo krt||〜なきゃ|-nakya}} or {{nihongo krt||〜なくちゃ|-nakucha}}, which comes from {{nihongo krt||〜なくては|-nakutewa}}. For example, {{nihongo krt||行かなければ|ikanakereba}} could become {{nihongo krt||行かなきゃ|ikanakya}} or {{nihongo krt||行かなくちゃ|ikanakucha}}.

In its {{nihongo|negative conjugation|〜なければ|-nakereba}}, the conditional form can express obligation or insistence by attaching to {{nihongo krt|to not happen|〜ならない|-naranai}} or {{nihongo krt|to not happen (polite) |〜なりません|-narimasen}}. This pattern of grammar is a double negative which loosely translates to "to avoid that action, will not happen". Semantically cancelling out the negation becomes "to do that action, will happen" ; however the true meaning is "I must do that action".{{sfn|Banno et al.|2020a|pp=279-280|loc="Lesson 12, Grammar 5: 〜なければいけません/〜なきゃいけません"}}{{sfn|Makino & Tsutsui|1989|pp=274-276|loc="Main Entries: ~nakereba naranai 〜なければならない" (Must)}}

• Japanese godan and ichidan verbs
• Honorific speech in Japanese
• Japanese adjectives
• Japanese particles
• Japanese grammar

{{reflist}}

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• {{cite book |last=McClain |first=Yoko |author-link=Yoko Matsuoka McClain |date=1981 |title=Handbook of modern Japanese grammar: including lists of words and expressions with English equivalents for reading aid |location=Tokyo, Japan |publisher=The Hokuseido Press |isbn=4-590-00570-0}}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|Miyake|2016}} |last1=三宅 |first1=俊浩 |title=Kanō dōshi no seiritsu |script-title=ja:可能動詞の成立 |trans-title=Origin of the Potential Verb in Japanese |journal=日本語の研究 |date=2016-04-01 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.20666/nihongonokenkyu.12.2_1 |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/nihongonokenkyu/12/2/12_1/_pdf |language=ja |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120101107/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/nihongonokenkyu/12/2/12_1/_pdf |archive-date=2017-11-20 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|Nakamura|2009}} |last1=中村 |first1=雅之 |title=Nihongo dōshi no onbin ni tsuite |script-title=ja:日本語動詞の音便について |trans-title=About the euphonic changes of Japanese verbs |journal=Kotonoha |date=2009-03-31 |issue=76 |pages=1–3 |url=http://www.for.aichi-pu.ac.jp/museum/pdf4/nakamura76.pdf |publisher=古代文字資料館 |location=Japan |language=ja |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819074312/http://www.for.aichi-pu.ac.jp/museum/pdf4/nakamura76.pdf |archive-date=2019-08-19 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite journal |ref={{sfnRef|Nakano|2008}} |last1=中野 |first1=琴代 |title=Nihongo no kanō dōshi |script-title=ja:日本語の可能動詞 |trans-title=The potential verb in Japanese |journal=下関市立大学論集 |date=September 2008 |volume=52 |issue=1–2 |pages=103–114 |url=http://ypir.lib.yamaguchi-u.ac.jp/sc/file/1683/20100303141623/SC20052000109.pdf |publisher=下関市立大学学会 |language=ja |issn=0387-5296 |oclc=183202722 |id=SC20052000109 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126143225/http://ypir.lib.yamaguchi-u.ac.jp/sc/file/1683/20100303141623/SC20052000109.pdf |archive-date=2021-01-26 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite thesis |ref={{sfnRef|Sakaki|2019}} |last1=坂喜 |first1=美佳 |title="Dōshi no onbin no hōgen-gaku-teki kenkyū — sa gyō ionbin o chūshin to shite" |script-title=ja:動詞の音便の方言学的研究—サ行イ音便を中心として— |trans-title=Dialectological study of verb euphonic changes - focusing on the "sa" column's euphonic change from "-i" |date=2019-01-17 |url=https://tohoku.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_uri&item_id=127187&file_id=18&file_no=1 |publisher=東北大学 (Tohoku University) |language=ja |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628060930/https://tohoku.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=127187&item_no=1&attribute_id=18&file_no=1 |archive-date=2021-06-28 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite book |last=Shirane |first=Haruo | author-link=Haruo Shirane |title=Classical Japanese: A Grammar |date=2005 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-13524-5}}
• {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Tofugu: Stem Form}} |title=Stem Form |website=Tofugu |url=https://www.tofugu.com/japanese-grammar/verb-stem-form-conjugation/ |access-date=2021-05-04 |language=en |date=2019-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518173037/https://www.tofugu.com/japanese-grammar/verb-stem-form-conjugation/ |archive-date=2021-05-18 |url-status=live}}
• {{cite web |ref={{sfnRef|Tofugu: 〜させる (Causative)}} |title=〜させる (Causative) |url=https://www.tofugu.com/japanese-grammar/verb-causative-form-saseru/ |website=Tofugu |access-date=2021-05-12 |language=en |date=2020-06-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511164405/https://www.tofugu.com/japanese-grammar/verb-causative-form-saseru/ |archive-date=2021-05-11 |url-status=live}}

{{refend}}

{{Wikibooks|Japanese|Verb conjugation table}}

• [http://www.japaneseverbconjugator.com/ Japanese Verb Conjugator], online tool giving all forms for any verb
• [http://www.verbix.com/languages/japanese.shtml Japanese Verb Conjugator], online tool with romaji, kana, and kanji output
• [http://jlearn.net/Dictionary/Search JLearn.net], an online Japanese dictionary that accepts conjugated terms and returns the root verb
• [https://cotoacademy.com/how-to-conjugate-te-form-illustrated-guide-japanese-verbs/] Guide to conjugation te form of Japanese verbs
• [https://cotoacademy.com/free-japanese-verb-dictionaries-links-list/] List of Free Online Verb Dictionaries
• [https://verbhandbook.ninjal.ac.jp/] Handbook of Japanese Verbs - National Institute of Japanese Language and Linguistics

{{Japanese language}}

{{Language verbs}}

Verb conjugations

Category:Japonic verbs

ja:活用#日本語における活用