Karlodinium veneficum

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}

{{Short description|Species of single-celled organism}}

{{Speciesbox

| image = Karlodinium veneficum.jpg

| image_caption =Scanning electron microscope image of Karlodinium veneficum (right) feeding on Rhodomonas

| genus = Karlodinium

| species = veneficum

| authority = (D.Ballantine) J.Larsen 2000

}}

Karlodinium veneficum is a species of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Kareniaceae.{{cite web |title=Karlodinium veneficum (D.Ballantine) J.Larsen 2000 :: Algaebase |url=https://www.algaebase.org/search/species/detail/?species_id=44336 |website=www.algaebase.org |access-date=29 October 2022}} This species is predominantly inhabiting aquatic environments, particularly in temperate coastal regions.

Karlodinium veneficum genome sizes have been reported as ~20 pg/cell{{cite journal | last1=Figueroa | first1=Rosa Isabel | last2=Garcés | first2=E. | last3=Bravo | first3=I. | title=The use of flow cytometry for species identification and life-cycle studies in dinoflagellates | journal=Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=57 | issue=3–4 | year=2010 | issn=0967-0645 | doi=10.1016/j.dsr2.2009.09.008 | pages=301–307| bibcode=2010DSRII..57..301F }} and 4 pg/cell.{{cite journal | last1=Liu | first1=Yuyang | last2=Hu | first2=Zhangxi | last3=Deng | first3=Yunyan | last4=Shang | first4=Lixia | last5=Gobler | first5=Christopher J. | last6=Tang | first6=Ying Zhong | title=Dependence of genome size and copy number of rRNA gene on cell volume in dinoflagellates | journal=Harmful Algae | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=109 | year=2021 | issn=1568-9883 | doi=10.1016/j.hal.2021.102108 | page=102108| pmid=34815026 | s2cid=244318552 }}

This phytoplankton has the capacity to produce harmfull toxins, specifically karlotoxins, which have been associated with detrimental phenomena such as harmful algae blooms.{{Cite journal |last1=Deeds |first1=Jonathan R |last2=Terlizzi |first2=Daniel E |last3=Adolf |first3=Jason E |last4=Stoecker |first4=Diane K |last5=Place |first5=Allen R |date=2002-06-01 |title=Toxic activity from cultures of Karlodinium micrum (=Gyrodinium galatheanum) (Dinophyceae)—a dinoflagellate associated with fish mortalities in an estuarine aquaculture facility |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568988302000276 |journal=Harmful Algae |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=169–189 |doi=10.1016/S1568-9883(02)00027-6 |issn=1568-9883|url-access=subscription }} These blooms have been documented globally, spanning regions from South Africa{{Cite web |title=Gymnodinium galatheanum Braarud :: AlgaeBase |url=https://www.algaebase.org/search/species/detail/?species_id=52347 |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=www.algaebase.org}} and Europe{{Cite journal |last=Carreto |first=J. I. |date=2001-10-01 |title=Pigment profile of the ichthyotoxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium sp. from a massive bloom in southern Chile |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=23 |issue=10 |pages=1171–1175 |doi=10.1093/plankt/23.10.1171 |issn=1464-3774|doi-access=free }} to Australia, North America, and China. The repercussions of K. veneficum blooms include not only ecological concerns, also substantial economic and environmental impacts.

The species-specific toxins produced by K. veneficum, known as karlotoxins, belong to the amphidinol-like compound class, exhibiting hemolytic, ichthyotoxic, and cytotoxic properties. The toxins generated by this dinoflagellate have been implicated in massive fish kills during bloom events.{{Cite journal |last1=Van Wagoner |first1=Ryan M. |last2=Deeds |first2=Jonathan R. |last3=Satake |first3=Masayuki |last4=Ribeiro |first4=Anthony A. |last5=Place |first5=Allen R. |last6=Wright |first6=Jeffrey L.C. |date=November 2008 |title=Isolation and characterization of karlotoxin 1, a new amphipathic toxin from Karlodinium veneficum |journal=Tetrahedron Letters |language=en |volume=49 |issue=45 |pages=6457–6461 |doi=10.1016/j.tetlet.2008.08.103 |pmc=2928153 |pmid=20798789}}

K. veneficum is not confined to solitary blooms but frequently coexists with other phytoplankton species, such as Prorocentrum donghaiense and Karenia mikimotoi.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Chengxu |last2=Place |first2=Allen R. |last3=Yan |first3=Xiaojun |last4=Xu |first4=Jilin |last5=Luo |first5=Qijun |last6=William |first6=Ernest |last7=Jiang |first7=Ying |date=November 2015 |title=Interactions between Karlodinium veneficum and Prorocentrum donghaiense from the East China Sea |journal=Harmful Algae |language=en |volume=49 |pages=50–57 |doi=10.1016/j.hal.2015.08.004 |pmc=6512812 |pmid=31093028}} K. veneficum often proliferates into dense blooms following the decline of P. donghaiense.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Rui |last2=Wu |first2=Jiajun |last3=Zhou |first3=Shiwen |last4=Cao |first4=Ruobing |last5=Chan |first5=Leo Lai |date=2020-09-01 |title=A preliminary study on the allelopathy and toxicity of the dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X2030518X |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=158 |pages=111400 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111400 |bibcode=2020MarPB.15811400W |s2cid=220979297 |issn=0025-326X|url-access=subscription }}