Kharavela#Hathigumpha Inscription

File:Hathigumpha.JPG

Much of the available information about Kharavela comes from the undated, much damaged Hathigumpha inscription and several minor inscriptions found in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in present-day Odisha. The Hathigumpha inscription records Kharavela's life until his 38th year, including 13 years of his reign. The inscription is badly damaged; of its 17 lines, only four are completely legible, the rest partly lost and eroded by natural processes.{{cite book |author=Sailendra Nath Sen |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA176 |year=1999 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0 |pages=176–177 }} It is open to "widely different" interpretations, giving rise to disputes and speculation by various scholars.{{cite book |author=Romila Thapar |title=The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyiqZKDlSBMC&pg=PA211 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302989-2 |pages=211–213}}{{cite book |author=N. K. Sahu |title=History of Orissa from the Earliest Time Up to 500 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a8MBAAAAMAAJ |year=1964 |publisher=Utkal University |page=303 }}{{cite book | last=Salomon | first=R. | title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-19-535666-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC | pages=142, 165 with footnote 12, Section 5.5.1.17 on p. 195}}

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|quote = Composed as it is in a very obscure Prakrit,

and its characters badly weathered

by centuries of exposure to the elements

and in places quite illegible,

the Hathigumpha inscription has long

been the subject of a great controversy

among historians and paleographers.

|source = — Arthur Llewellyn Basham{{cite book | last=Kant | first=Shashi | title=The Hāthīgumphā Inscription of Khāravela and the Bhabru Edict of Aśoka: A Critical Study (2nd Edition, published in 2000) | publisher=Prints India | year=1971 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEo_AAAAMAAJ | pages=vii}}

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The kingdom of Kalinga was invaded by Ashoka c. 262-261 BCE. The Hathigumpha inscription implies that Kalinga regained its independence from the Maurya Empire sometime after Ashoka's death, and Kharavela was born in an independent Kalinga.

In 1885, the colonial era epigraphist Bhagwan Lal Indraji read the 16th line of the Hathigumpha inscription as a reference to Maurya kala and 165th year after this new timeline, which he called the Mauryan era. Indraji concluded that Kharavela was born in 127 BCE and became king in 103 BCE. Indraji's interpretations were questioned by scholars and has been largely rejected.J.F. Fleet (1910), The Hathigumpha Inscription, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pp. 824-828, {{JSTOR|25189732}}{{cite book |author=Rama Shankar Tripathi |title=History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOVpOG6MPMcC&pg=PA199 |year=1942 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0018-2 |pages=199–201 }}{{cite journal | last=Spink | first=Walter | title=On the Development of Early Buddhist Art in India | journal=The Art Bulletin | volume=40 | issue=2 | year=1958 | doi=10.2307/3047760 | pages=99, context: 95–120| jstor=3047760 }}

According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, the 16th line does not mention Maurya kala ("Maurya era") but reads Mukhya kala ("the main era"). Chattopadhyaya relies on the description of Kharavela's fifth regnal year in the Hathigumpha inscription, which he says implies that Kharavela flourished ti-vasa-sata years after the Nandaraja. Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri identifies Nandaraja with Mahapadma Nanda or one of his sons. The expression ti-vasa-sata can mean 103 or 300 years; Chattopadhyaya does not consider 103 plausible, since it would contradict Ashoka's records. Based on this, he places Kharavela in the second half of the first century BCE or the first half of the first century CE.

Depending on the variant readings, different dates continue to be published in post-colonial era texts. Alain Daniélou, for example, places Kharavela between 180 BCE and 130 BCE, identifying him as a contemporary of Satakarni and Pushyamitra Shunga.{{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kwnv3I6qIosC&pg=PA139 |year=2003 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=139–141}} According to Rama Shankar Tripathi, Kharavela reigned during the third quarter of the first century BCE. Many other scholars, such as D.C. Sircar and Walter Spink, date Kharavela and the Hathigumpha inscription in the 1st-century BCE to early 1st-century CE.D. Sircar (1965), Select Inscriptions Volume 1, Calcutta University Press, page 213–214 footnote 1{{cite journal | last=Spink | first=Walter | title=On the Development of Early Buddhist Art in India | journal=The Art Bulletin | volume=40 | issue=2 | year=1958 | doi=10.2307/3047760 | pages=98–100, context: 95–120| jstor=3047760 }}

File:Hathigumpha inscription.JPG

The first line of the Hathigumpha inscription calls Kharavela "Chetaraja-vasa-vadhanena" (चेतराज वस वधनेन, "the one who extended the family of the Cheta King").{{cite book |author1=Martin Brandtner |author2=Shishir Kumar Panda |title=Interrogating History: Essays for Hermann Kulke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ChuAAAAMAAJ |year= 2006 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-679-7 |page=96 }} R. D. Banerji and D. C. Sircar interpreted "Cheti" (चेति) to be referring to a dynasty from which Kharavela descended, namely Chedi mahajanapada. According to Sahu, this is incorrect and an artifact of a crack in the stone. The "Chetaraja", states Sahu, probably refers to Kharavela's father and his immediate predecessor.{{rp|18}}

The Hathigumpha inscription also contains a word that has been interpreted as Aira or Aila. According to a small inscription found in the Mancapuri Cave, Kharavela's successor Kudepasiri also styled himself as Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana (Devanagari: ऐर महाराजा कलिंगाधिपतिना महामेघवाहन). Early readings of that inscription by scholars such as James Prinsep and R. L. Mitra interpreted Aira as the name of the king in the Hathigumpha inscription. Indraji's work corrected this error, and established that the king mentioned in the Hathugumpha inscription was Kharavela and that he was a descendant of Mahameghavahana.{{cite book |title=Proceedings of the Leyden International Oriental Congress for 1883 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=womFcFAtU7MC&pg=PA144 |year=1885 |author=Bhagwanlal Indraji |chapter=The Hâtigumphâ and three other inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves near Cuttack |pages=144–180 }} It does not directly mention the relationship between Mahameghavahana and Kharavela, or the number of kings between them. Indraji interpreted the inscription to create a hypothetical family tree in 1885, but this is largely discredited.

The word Aira or Aila was then re-interpreted, by Barua{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcgBAAAAMAAJ |title=The early history of Kaliṅga |author=Dharmanarayan Das |publisher=Punthi Pustak |year=1977|page=155 }} and Sahu{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72luAAAAMAAJ |title=Political And Cultural History Of Orissa |author=Shishir Kumar Panda |publisher=New Age |year=1999 |isbn=9788122411973 |page=58 }} to be the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Arya ("noble"). Jayaswal and Banerji interpret the same word to be referring to the Aila dynasty, the mythical Pururavas dynasty mentioned in Hindu and Jain texts; Kharavela's Mahameghavahana family might have claimed descent from this Pururavas dynasty.{{cite book |title=Epigraphia Indica Volume 20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2m1DAAAAYAAJ |year=1920 |author1 = Jayaswal | author2 = Banerji |page=80 }} Scholars such as Sircar and Sharma, based on later discovered Guntupalli inscriptions, state that Kharavela was one of the ancient Mahameghavahana dynasty king from Kalinga.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|pp=31–32}}

File:Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves 2024 52.jpg

Suniti Kumar Chatterji interpreted "Kharavela" as a name of Dravidian origin, possibly derived from the words kar ("black and terrible") and vel ("lance").{{cite book |author=Suniti Kumar Chatterji |title=The People, Language, and Culture of Orissa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJHf37IjSBwC |year=1966 |publisher=Orissa Sahitya Akademi}} Richard N. Frye, however, did not find Chatterji's etymology satisfactory.{{cite book |author=K. D. Sethna |title=Ancient India in a new light |url=http://motherandsriaurobindo.in/_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-03%20Disciples/K%20D%20Sethna/-01%20English/Ancient%20India%20in%20a%20New%20Light/-009_%20A%20Reconstruction%20of%20Ancient%20Indian%20History%20Asoka%20and%20Before%20and%20After.htm |year=1989 |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |isbn=978-81-85179-12-4 |page=279 |quote=S.K. Chatterji and Pzryluski have written on the etymology of the name Khāravela. Their views are not satisfactory. |access-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923091204/http://motherandsriaurobindo.in/_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-03%20Disciples/K%20D%20Sethna/-01%20English/Ancient%20India%20in%20a%20New%20Light/-009_%20A%20Reconstruction%20of%20Ancient%20Indian%20History%20Asoka%20and%20Before%20and%20After.htm |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }} According to Braj Nath Puri, it is difficult to suggest a Dravidian cultural origin for Kharavela's dynasty or connect it to South India with certainty. N. K. Sahu also doubts this theory, where he interprets "Aira" or "Aila" word in the Hathigumpha inscription as Kharavela must be self identifying himself as an Aryan.

File:Khandagiri caves2.jpg Inscribed at Hathigumpha Inscription by Kharavela c. 20 BCE.]]

The Hathigumpha inscription begins with a variation of the salute to arihants and siddhas. This is similar to the Jain Pancha-Namaskara Mantra, in which three more entities are invoked in addition to the arihants and siddhas.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6v6ahxHi8C&pg=PA163 |title=The Jaina Path of Purification |author=Padmanabh Jaini |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=9788120815780 |page=163 }} Other parts of the Hathigumpha inscription, as well as the minor inscriptions found at Udayagiri from around 1st-century BCE use Jain phrases. He is therefore generally called a Jain king.Upinder Singh (2017), Political violence in ancient India, Harvard University Press, pp 252–253 He brought back Jina idol from Mathura which was taken by Nanda king.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=32}}

Some scholars such as Paul Dundas question whether he was a Jain, or another ancient king who supported Jainism and is valorized in an inscription written at a Jain site. One reason for doubts is that Hathigumpha inscription explicitly states he was a devotee of all religious sects (sava-pāsanḍa pūjako) and repaired temples dedicated to a variety of gods (sava-de[vāya]tana-sakāra-kārako).{{cite book |author=Hampa Nāgrājayya |title=A History of the Early Ganga Monarchy and Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JuAAAAMAAJ |date=1 January 1999 |publisher=Ankita Pustaka |isbn=978-81-87321-16-3 |page=10 }}{{cite book |author=Haripada Chakraborti |title=Early Brāhmī Records in India (c. 300 B.C.-c. 300 A.D.): An Analytical Study: Social, Economic, Religious, and Administrative |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Kc5AQAAIAAJ |year=1974 |publisher=Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar}}

Other reasons to doubt Kharavela was a devout Jain is also found in many lines of the Hathigumpha inscription.{{cite book |author=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA113 |date=2 September 2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1-134-50165-X |page=113 }} The repeated mention of violence and wars in the inscription, says Dundas, raises questions whether Kharavela was merely partial to Jainism given the central doctrine of Ahimsa (non-violence) in Jainism.{{cite book | editor= Patrick Olivelle | author= Paul Dundas | title=Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-19-977507-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC | page=392 with footnotes}}

According to Helmuth von Glasenapp, he was probably a free-thinker who patronized all his subjects (including Jains).{{citation |last=Glasenapp |first=Helmuth Von |author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp |title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |date=1999 |location = Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&pg=PA45 |isbn=81-208-1376-6 |trans-title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion |page=45 }}

{{main|Hathigumpha inscription}}

According to the Hathigumpha inscription, Kharavela spent his first 24 years on education and sports, a period when he mastered the fields of writing, coinage, accounting, administration and procedures of law.{{cite book |author1= K P Jayaswal| author2 = R D Banerji|title= Epigraphia Indica Volume XX |year=1920 |url= https://archive.org/details/epigrahiaindicav014769mbp |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |pages= 80–89 with footnotes}}, {{PD-notice}} He was the prince to the throne (yuvaraja) at 16, and crowned King of Kalinga at age 24. The Hathigumpha inscription details his first 13 years of his reign. Some notable aspects of this reign includes:

{{glossary}}

{{term|Year 1}}

{{defn|Many public infrastructure projects: Kharavela repaired gates and buildings that had been damaged by storms, built reservoirs and tanks, and restored the gardens.}}

{{term|Year 2}}

{{defn|Dispatch of an army with cavalry, elephants, chariots, and men towards a kingdom led by "Satakani" or "Satakamini" (identified with Satakarni, near Krishna river valley). It also mentions Kharavela's threat to a city variously interpreted as "Masika" (Masikanagara), "Musika" (Musikanagara), "Asika" (Asikanagara, capital of Assaka).{{cite book |author1=N. K. Sahu |author2=Kharavela (King of Kalinga) |title=Khâravela |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlMhAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Orissa State Museum}}{{rp|127}}{{cite book |author1=Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal Sankalia |author2=Bhaskar Chatterjee |author3=Rabin Dev Choudhury |author4=Mandira Bhattacharyya |author5=Shri Bhagwan Singh |title=History and archaeology: Prof. H.D. Sankalia felicitation volume |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uFg8AAAAMAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Ramanand Vidya Bhawan |page=332 |isbn=9788185205465 }}

Scholars interpret the events described in the inscription differently. Jayaswal, Banerji and Sen say that Kharavela threatened Satakarni. According to Bhagwal Lal, King Satakarni of the western region wanted to avoid an invasion of his kingdom by Kharavela and sent him horses, elephants, chariots and men in tribute. That year, Kharavela captured the city of Masika with the aid of the Kusumba Kshatriyas. According to Alain Daniélou, Kharavela was friendly with Satakarni. Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya writes that Kharavela's army failed to advance against Satakarni and diverged to threaten the city of Asika (Asikanagara).{{cite book |author=Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya |title=Some Early Dynasties of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78I5lDHU2jQC&pg=PA20 |year=1974 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2941-1 |pages=44–50 }}}}

{{term|Year 3}}

{{defn|Well-versed in Gandharvan music, Kharavela entertained the city with festive gatherings which included singing, dancing and instrumental music.{{cite news|url=http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/HathigumphaInscription.pdf |title=Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga |publisher=South Dakota State University |work=Project South Asia |access-date=2015-07-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232906/http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/HathigumphaInscription.pdf |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}}}

{{term|Year 4}}

{{defn|Rathikas and Bhojakas bow to him, he built monuments to Vidyadharas}}

{{term|Year 5}}

{{defn|Kharavela commissioned extended a canal originally built by the Nandas ti-vasa-sata ago, thus brought it into the capital of Kalinga. Ti-vasa-sata can mean 103 or 300 years. Most scholars, such as Barua and Sircar interpret this to be 300 years. This implies that Kharavela came to power about 300 years when this region was under the Nanda dynasty rule.{{sfn|B Barua|1929|pp=42–43 with footnotes}}}}

{{term|Years 6–7}}

{{defn|His wife, who is stated to be from Vajiragraha family, gives birth to their child. Kharavela exempts taxes and performs charitable works that help hundreds of thousands of people. According to K. P. Jayaswal and R. D. Banerji, the king also performed the Rajasuya sacrifice – a Vedic ritual for the king, then gives gifts to Jain monks and Brahmins.{{sfn|B Barua|1929|pp=43–44 with footnotes}} According to Sircar, this ink impression and reading is doubtful. Similarly the alleged achievements of Kharavela here are problematic and doubtfulD. Sircar (1965), Select Inscriptions Volume 1, Calcutta University Press, page 216 footnotes 1 and 3 Sircar also adds that this should not be read as "sacrifice ritual", but a different similar word with the meaning "royal fortune" he used to give away gifts.D. Sircar (1965), Select Inscriptions Volume 1, Calcutta University Press, page 215 footnotes 8 and 9}}

{{term|Years 8–9}}

{{defn|The record is partially damaged. It mentions a Yavana king running away in fear and retreating to Mathura. Alain Daniélou writes that Kharavela sacked Gorathagiri (near the Barabar Hills) with a large army and subdued the town of Rajagriha (identified with present-day Rajgir). According to Ananta Prasad Banerji-Sastri, Kharavela expelled members of the Ajivika sect (a rival of the Jains) from the Barabari caves and mutilated their inscriptions.{{cite book |author=Radhakumud Mookerji |title=Asoka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC&pg=PA206 |year=1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0582-8 |pages=206–}}{{cite book |author=Arthur Llewellyn Basham |title=History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, a Vanished Indian Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC&pg=PA158 |year=1951 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1204-8 |pages=158–159 }}}}

{{term|Year 10}}

{{defn|Much of the record is lost. The inscription mentions Bharatavasa and a series of military campaigns with victories. Kharavela defeats the Ava king and broke up the 113-year confederacy of the "T[r]amira" countries which had endangered Kalinga. Sen and Alain Daniélou interpret "Tramira" as "Dramira" ("Dravidian") confederacy.}}

{{term|Year 12}}

{{defn|Parts of this record are lost. Kharavela sends his troops to Uttarpatha (the north), and subdues the king of Magadha. K. P. Jayaswal identified Bahasmita with Pushyamitra Shunga, but Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri discredits this theory. Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya believes that Bahasatimita may have been a king of Kaushambi, and his rule might have extended to Magadha as well. This section of the inscription mentions a "Ka[li]ngajinam" taken by Nanda king in the past and he brought it back to Kalinga. Kharavela built a settlement of a hundred masons with a tax exemption.}}

{{term|Year 13}}

{{defn|This is the last part of the inscription and praises Kharavela. It also states that he organized a council of ascetics and sages, and constructed a shelter, commissioned the compilation of the text of the seven-fold Angas in the sixty-four letters (scripts). The inscription also claims that Kharavela was a descendant of the royal sage Vasu.}}

{{glossary end}}

Kulke and Rothermund state Kharavela's empire state that the history of ancient India is unclear including the times after Ashoka and Kharavela. Given the lack of major inscriptions by his successors, they surmise that the Kharavela empire likely disintegrated soon after his death.{{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke |author2=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA101 |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 |page=101 }} A little is known about the next two generations of kings - Vakradeva (a.k.a. Kudepasiri or Vakadepa) and Vadukha - but through the minor inscriptions at Udayagiri. Kharavela was succeeded by Sada dynasty kings.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=31}} Siri Sada is mentioned as a Mahameghavahana king in an inscription at Guntupalli.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=31}}

File:Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves 2024 14.jpg

Kharavela's inscription depict him as a man with ruddy and handsome body and had lived a youthful life for 25 years, a keen learner having who received a thorough education and had mastered writing, coinage, accountancy, administration and legal procedures. He is one of the very few early Indian monarchs who proudly proclaim to have been systematically educated in their official inscription. The Hathigumpha inscription had portrayed him as a compassionate ruler who made a settlement of a hundred and thousands of masons, giving them exemption from land revenue. It also mentions that he donated royal maintenances, China clothes (silks) and white clothes to the Jain monks and made temples and caves for arahats and sramanas.

The inscription states that Kharavela was a great patron of art and music and well versed in the science of Gandharvas. He held festivities and assemblies and entertains his capital with exhibition of dapa, dancing, singing and instrumental music.

The inscription praises Kharavela's might and his patronage to all temples, stating that he repaired all the temples and whose chariot and army are irresistable.

Kharavela's inscriptions call him a Kalinga-Chakravartin (Emperor of Kalinga).{{cite book |author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial unity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dDAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Kalinga-chakravartin%22 |page=213|year=1951 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}} He was one of Kalinga's strongest rulers.{{cite book |title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA107 |year=2003 |publisher=Sterling |author1=Baij Nath Puri|author2=Pran Nath Chopra|author3=Manmath Nath Das|author4=AC Pradhan |isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 |pages=107–108}} The inscription states that after his imperial coronation he repaired the gates, walls and forts of the capital city which had been damaged by storm.

• Hathigumpha inscription
• Kharavela's Invasion of Vidharbha

{{reflist|30em}}

• {{cite book|author=B Barua| title= Old Brahmi Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves| year=1929| publisher=University of Calcutta|oclc = 6055302}}; For his updated analysis: B Barua (1938), Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, Indian Historical Quarterly XIV, pp. 459-85
• {{citation |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ |publisher=Pearson PLC |year=2016 |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 |ref={{sfnref|Upinder Singh|2016}} }}
• {{citation |editor-last=Vyas |editor-first=Dr. R. T. |author-link=R.T. Vyas |url={{Google books|fETebHcHKogC|plainurl=yes}} |title=Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects |publisher=The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara |year=1995 |isbn=81-7017-316-7 }}

Category:1st-century Indian monarchs

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Category:History of Andhra Pradesh

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Category:Mahameghavahana dynasty

Category:Emperors in India

Category:Jain monarchs