Kitos War#Cyprus

The Hebrew name for the conflict, {{Script/Hebrew|פולמוס קיטוס}} {{transliteration|he|Polmus Ḳīṭus}}, is a corruption (likely through Aramaic) of the Greek {{Script/Greek|Πόλεμος του Κυήτου}} {{transliteration|grc|Pólemos tū Cyḗtū}} (meaning Quietus's War), after the Roman governor of Judaea, Lusius Quietus, who put down the revolt.

The terms "Kitos War", "Diaspora Revolt" and "Second Jewish–Roman War", are often used interchangeably, but the first two terms are better understood as theatres of the latter larger conflict.

{{main|First Jewish–Roman War}}

Tension between the Jewish population of the Roman Empire and the Greek and Roman populations mounted over the course of the 1st century CE, gradually escalating with various violent events, mainly throughout Judea (Iudaea), where parts of the Judean population occasionally erupted into violent insurrections against the Roman Empire. Several incidents also occurred in other parts of the empire, most notably the Alexandria pogroms, targeting the large Jewish community of Alexandria in the province of Egypt. However, with the exception of Alexandria, the Jewish diaspora fared well throughout the Roman Empire and relied on the Roman state to maintain their rights.{{cite book |author=Martin Goodman |author-link=Martin Goodman (historian) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNQPAEErNy8C |title=Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations |publisher=Vintage Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-375-72613-2 |page=418}}

The escalation of tensions finally erupted as the First Jewish–Roman War, which began in 66. Initial hostilities were the result of Greek and Jewish religious tensions but later escalated with anti-taxation protests and attacks upon Roman citizens.Josephus, War of the Jews II.8.11, II.13.7, II.14.4, II.14.5 The Roman military garrison of Judea was quickly overrun by rebels and the pro-Roman king Herod Agrippa II fled Jerusalem, together with Roman officials, to Galilee. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on XII Fulminata, reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon, a result that shocked the Roman leadership.

The suppression of the revolt was then handed to General Vespasian and his son Titus, who assembled four legions and began advancing through the country, starting with Galilee in 67. The revolt ended when legions under Titus besieged and destroyed the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in 70 and defeated the remaining Jewish strongholds later on.

In 115 CE, a wave of large-scale Jewish uprisings, known as the "Diaspora Revolt", erupted almost simultaneously across several provinces in the Eastern Mediterranean.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=102}} The uprisings took place while Emperor Trajan was waging a military campaign against the Parthian Empire further east. The revolts appear to have been influenced by long-standing ethnic tensions,{{sfn|Bennett|2005|p=204}} the destruction of the Second Temple,{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=93–94}} and revolutionary ideas spread by insurgents from Judaea.{{sfn|Horbury|2014|p=273}} Additional factors fueling the unrest included the humiliating Jewish Tax imposed by Rome{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=93–94}} and widespread messianic expectations of divine redemption.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=93–94}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=397}}{{sfn|Barclay|1998|p=241}} Scholars believe that the rebels may have aimed at a return to Judaea, the re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty, and the rebuilding of the Temple.{{sfn|Horbury|2014|p=276}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=397}}

In Libya, Jewish forces launched attacks against Greek and Roman populations under the leadership of either Andreas or Lukuas – possibly the same individual known by both names.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=94–95}} In Egypt, the uprising reportedly began with clashes between Jewish communities and their Greek neighbors,{{sfn|Horbury|2021|p=348}} which escalated when Lukuas and his followers arrived from Cyrenaica. They plundered the countryside and overcame local resistance. The Greeks, supported by Egyptian peasants and Romans, retaliated, massacring the Jews of Alexandria.{{sfn|Horbury|2021|p=350}} In Cyprus, Jewish rebels under Artemion's leadership reportedly devastated the island and the city of Salamis.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=96}}{{sfn|Horbury|2014|p=249}}

The Roman response was severe. Marcius Turbo, initially deployed against the Parthians, was redirected to suppress the revolts in Egypt and Libya with a large military force.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=96–98}} His campaigns were marked by extreme brutality,{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=96–98}}{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|pp=61–62}} leading to the near-extermination of Jewish populations in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt. By late 117 CE, the revolts had been largely quelled,{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=96–98}} though some disturbances in Egypt may have continued into early 118 CE.{{sfn|Hacham|Ilan|2022|pp=9, 109–110}} In the aftermath, Jewish communities in the affected regions suffered immense losses,{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|pp=61–62}}{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=10}} with archaeological evidence indicating severe destruction, particularly in Cyrene, which required reconstruction under Hadrian.{{sfn|Walker|2002|pp=45–47}}

Ancient sources state that, alongside the Jewish uprisings in Egypt, Libya, and Cyprus, unrest also erupted in Mesopotamia following its recent conquest by the Romans from the Parthians. Cassius Dio describes a rebellion in the region during the summer of 116 CE, noting that General Lusius Quietus played a key role in suppressing it, retaking Nisibis and sacking Edessa, though he does not specifically mention Jewish involvement.{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|p=86}}{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=99–100}}

In contrast, Eusebius explicitly attributes activities in Mesopotamia to the Jews, reporting that Trajan suspected them of planning attacks against the inhabitants,Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 4.2.5; possibly also Suidae Lexicon I, no. 4325; IV, no. 590 prompting him to order Quietus to suppress them harshly.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=99–100}} Eusebius further states that Quietus "murdered a great number of the Jews there." Later Christian sources also mention a military campaign led by Quietus against Jewish communities in the region.{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|p=86}} Jewish resistance in Mesopotamia may have been part of a wider movement against Roman occupation in the Parthian territories, likely fueled by the contrast between their relatively privileged status under Parthian rule and the harsher conditions imposed by the Romans.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=99–100}}

Following his suppression of rebel resistance in Mesopotamia, Quietus was honored with the consulship and given the governorship of Judaea by Trajan.Cassius Dio, Roman History, 68.32.5; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 4.2.5{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}} The exact events at this stage remain unclear,{{Efn|Cassius Dio and Eusebius, the primary sources on the diaspora uprisings of this period, make no mention of events in Judaea at that time.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}}}} but according to scholars such as Pucci Ben Zeev, there appears to have been a wave of Jewish unrest that Lucius Quietus suppressed.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}} Fergus Millar, however, notes that "there is no concrete evidence for a Jewish revolt in Judaea" concurrent with the Diaspora Revolt.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=103}}

Cassius Dio and Eusebius, the main sources on the diaspora uprisings of this period, do not mention events in Judaea at the time.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}} However, fragmented and later accounts offer some insight. One such piece of evidence is an inscription from Sardinia, which records an {{lang|la|expeditio Judaeae}} among the wars fought by Trajan.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=101}} Additionally, two late Syriac sources suggest that Jewish rebels from Egypt and Libya moved to Judaea, where they were defeated by the Romans.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}}

Rabbinic sources recount the story of Julian and Pappus, which may have taken place during this period of unrest in Judaea.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=100}} It is possible that Quietus laid siege to Lydda, where the rebel Jews had gathered under the leadership of Julian and Pappus. The distress became so great that the patriarch Rabban Gamaliel II, who was shut up there and died soon afterwards, permitted fasting even on Ḥanukkah. Other rabbis condemned that measure.Ta'anit ii. 10; Yer. Ta'anit ii. 66a; Yer. Meg. i. 70d; R. H. 18b Lydda was then taken, and many of the rebellious Jews were executed; the "slain of Lydda" are often mentioned in words of reverential praise in the Talmud. Pappus and Julian were among those executed by the Romans that year, and became martyrs among the Jews.

Lusius Quietus, whom Trajan had held in high regard and who had served Rome so well, was quietly stripped of his command once Hadrian had secured the imperial title. He was murdered in unknown circumstances in the summer of 118, possibly by the orders of Hadrian. Hadrian took the unpopular decisions to end the war, abandon many of Trajan's eastern conquests, and stabilise the eastern borders. Although he abandoned the province of Mesopotamia, he installed Parthamaspates—who had been ejected from Ctesiphon by the returning Osroes—as king of a restored Osroene. For a century, Osroene retained a precarious independence as a buffer state between both empires. The situation in Judea remained tense for the Romans, who were obliged under Hadrian to move the Legio VI Ferrata permanently into Caesarea Maritima in Judea.

After the Kitos War, Judaea underwent administrative and military restructuring. The province was elevated from praetorian to consular status, allowing for a strengthened military presence. As part of this change, a second legion, likely Legio II Traiana, was stationed in the region by circa 120 CE.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=101}} Following Quietus, subsequent governors of the province also held consular rank. Among them were Lucius Cossonius Gallus, who was appointed consul in 116 CE and governed Judaea between 118 and 120 CE, and Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus, consul suffectus in 119 CE, who served as governor between 122 and 125 CE.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|p=101}}

{{Main article|Bar Kokhba revolt}}

Further developments took place in Judaea in 130 CE, when Hadrian visited the Eastern Mediterranean and decided to rebuild the ruined city of Jerusalem as the Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina, named after himself.{{sfn|Magness|2024|pp=294–296}} This decision, along with a possible ban on circumcision, led to the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba revolt,{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=106}} the final major Jewish uprising and last organized attempt to regain national independence.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=127}}{{sfn|Isaac|1990|p=55}} The rebels initially secured victories against the Romans, briefly establishing an independent state and severely straining Roman military resources. In response, Rome mobilized a massive force and crushed the rebellion with an unprecedented assault on Judaea's Jewish population,{{sfn|Taylor|2012|p=243}}{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=Ben David |first2=Chaim |date=2021-05-27 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |s2cid=236389017 |doi-access=free}} mass enslavement and displacement,{{sfn|Mor|2016|pp=471, 483–484}} the destruction of the Judean countryside,{{sfn|Zissu|2018|pp=28–29, 37}} and a ban on Jewish practices, which remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138 CE.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=126}} Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|pp=126–127}}

{{notelist}}

• History of the Jews in the Roman Empire
• Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus, 352
• Samaritan revolts, 484–572
• Jewish revolt against Heraclius, 614–617/625

• List of conflicts in the Near East

• {{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=John M.G. |url= |title=Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |publisher=T&T Clark |year=1998 |orig-date= |isbn=978-0567-08651-8 |edition= |series= |volume= |location=Edinburgh}}
• {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Julian |url= |title=Trajan Optimus Princeps: A Life and Times |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |orig-date=1997 |isbn=0-203-36056-7 |edition=e-Library |series= |volume= |location=London and New York}}
• {{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4th |location= |pages= |chapter=The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Goodman |first=Martin |year=2004 |title=Trajan and the Origins of Roman Hostility to the Jews |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3600803 |journal=Past & Present |volume= |issue=182 |pages=3–29 |doi= 10.1093/past/182.1.3|jstor=3600803 |url-access=subscription }}
• {{Cite book |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110787764/html |title=The Early Roman Period (30 BCE–117 CE) |publisher=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-110-78599-9 |editor-last=Hacham |editor-first=Noah |series=Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum |volume=5 |location= |chapter= |pages= |doi=10.1515/9783110787764 |editor-last2=Ilan |editor-first2=Tal}}
• {{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/jewish-war-under-trajan-and-hadrian/jewish-war-under-trajan-and-hadrian/039283010F789E29AA6B95AA212BC9FA |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |series= |volume= |location= |pages= |chapter=}}
• {{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |url= |title=Israel in Egypt: The Land of Egypt as Concept and Reality for Jews in Antiquity and the Early Medieval Period |publisher=Brill |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-43539-1 |editor-last=Salvesen |editor-first=Alison |series=Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity |volume=110 |location=Leiden & Boston |chapter=Jewish Egypt in the Light of the Risings under Trajan |pages=347–366 |editor-last2=Pearce |editor-first2=Sarah |editor-last3=Frenkel |editor-first3=Miriam}}
• {{Cite book |last=Isaac |first=Benjamin |url= |title=The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-198-14952-1 |series= |volume= |location= |pages= |chapter=}}
• {{Cite book |last=Kerkeslager |first=Allen |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |location= |chapter=The Jews in Egypt and Cyrenaica, 66–c. 235 CE |pages=}}
• {{Cite book |last=Magness |first=Jodi |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/jerusalem-through-the-ages-9780190937805 |title=Jerusalem Through The Ages: From Its Beginnings To The Crusades |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-19-093780-5 |series= |volume= |location=New York, NY |pages= |chapter=}}
• {{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |url=https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674778863 |title=The Roman Near East: 31 BC–AD 337 |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-674-77886-3 |series= |volume= |location= |pages= |chapter=}}
• {{cite book|last=Mor|first=Menahem|title=The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132–136 CE |year=2016|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-31463-4}}
• {{Cite book |last=Pucci Ben Zeev |first=Miriam |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |location=Cambridge |chapter=The Uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117|pages=93–104 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521772488.005}}
• {{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004502048_023 |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=SBL Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |series= |volume= |location= |pages=389–427 |chapter=The Jewish Revolt of AD 115–117 |doi=10.1163/9789004502048_023}}
• {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=J. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWIMFY4VnI4C&pg=PA243 |title=The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199554485}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Susan |year=2002 |title=Hadrian and the Renewal of Cyrene |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/libyan-studies/article/abs/hadrian-and-the-renewal-of-cyrene/79FD713919C7F0CAA562DB2C4DC00F12 |journal=Libyan Studies |volume=33 |issue= |pages=45–56 |doi=10.1017/S0263718900005112|language=|publisher=Society for Libyan Studies|url-access=subscription }}
• {{Cite book | last=Zissu | first=Boaz | editor-first=Joshua J. | editor-last=Schwartz | editor2-first=Peter J. | editor2-last=Tomson | title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE | series=Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum | volume=15 | chapter=Interbellum Judea 70–132 ce: An Archaeological Perspective | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004352971_003 | year=2018 | pages=19–49 | isbn=978-90-04-35297-1 | publisher=Brill | doi=10.1163/9789004352971_011 }}

• "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=237&letter=B BAR KOKBA AND BAR KOKBA WAR]" article from [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628180823/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp|date=2011-06-28}} (public domain)
• "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=948&letter=C&search=egypt%20roman Cyprus: In Roman Times]" article from [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628180823/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp|date=2011-06-28}} (public domain)
• "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=948&letter=C&search=egypt%20roman Cyrene]" article from [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628180823/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp|date=2011-06-28}} (public domain)
• "[https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/roman-jewish-wars/roman-jewish-wars-7/ The revolt against Trajan]", at livius.org
• [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.ix.ii.html Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers], Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 4.2.

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