Linus Pauling

File:Herman Henry William Pauling.jpg

Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in Portland, Oregon,{{Cite journal |last=Dunitz |first=Jack D. |author-link=Jack D. Dunitz |date=1996 |title=Linus Carl Pauling. 28 February 1901–19 August 1994 |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |language=en-gb |volume=42 |issue=9 |pages=316–326 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1996.0020 |pmid=11619334 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling's Childhood (1901–1910) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page3.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407144827/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page3.html |archive-date=April 7, 2022 |access-date=April 25, 2013 |website=Oregon State University |language=en-us}} the firstborn child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926).{{Cite book |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |url=https://archive.org/details/forceofnaturelif00hage |title=Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling |date=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-80909-0 |via=Internet Archive}}{{rp|22}} He was named "Linus Carl", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.{{Cite book |title=Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker |date=2001 |publisher=Oregon State University Press |isbn=978-0-87071-489-4 |editor-last=Mead |editor-first=Clifford |editor-last2=Hager |editor-first2=Thomas |editor-link2=Thomas Hager}}{{rp|8}} His ancestry included German and English.{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling: Biographical |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/biographical/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318142845/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1954/pauling/biographical/ |archive-date=March 18, 2022 |access-date=September 27, 2021 |website=Nobel Prize |language=en-US}}{{Cite book |last=Dunitz |first=Jack D. |author-link=Jack D. Dunitz |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/5737/chapter/13 |title=Biographical Memoirs |date=1997 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-05738-7 |volume=71 |pages=221–261 |language=en |chapter=Linus Carl Pauling |doi=10.17226/5737 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028051456/https://www.nap.edu/read/5737/chapter/13 |archive-date=October 28, 2021 |url-status=live |access-date=September 27, 2021 }}

In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of Portland to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment.{{Cite book |last1=Goertzel |first1=Ted |author1-link=Ted Goertzel |url=https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinglife0000goer_i4n1 |title=Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics |last2=Goertzel |first2=Ben |date=1995 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00672-4 |language=en |via=Internet Archive}}{{rp|4}} Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego until Herman brought the family to Salem, where he worked briefly as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Oswego, Oregon where he opened his own drugstore.{{r|GoGo|p=4}} He moved his family to Condon, Oregon, in 1905.{{r|GoGo|p=5}} By 1906, Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent abdominal pain. He died of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.{{r|MeadHager|p=9}}

Pauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress, who had a small chemistry lab kit.{{r|GoGo|p=17}} He later wrote: "I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena, by the reactions in which substances, often with strikingly different properties, appear; and I hoped to learn more and more about this aspect of the world."{{Cite book |last=Abrams |first=Irwin |url={{GBurl|id=ny77bPwKxaUC|page=198}} |title=The Nobel Peace Prize and the laureates : an illustrated biographical history, 1901–1987 |date=1988 |publisher=G.K. Hall |isbn=978-0-8161-8609-9 |edition=2. print. |location=Boston}}

In high school, Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon's basement. They approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and the business ended in failure.{{r|GoGo|p=21}}

At age 15, the high school senior had enough credits to enter Oregon State University (OSU), known then as Oregon Agricultural College.{{r|GoGo|p=22}} Lacking two American history courses required for his high school diploma, Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester. Denied, he left Washington High School in June without a diploma.{{r|Nature|p=48}} The school awarded him an honorary diploma 45 years later, after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes.{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1998 |title=Pauling, Linus |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Biography |publisher=Thomson Gale |editor-last=Bourgoin |editor-first=Suzanne M. |volume=12 |page=150 |isbn=978-0-7876-2221-3 |oclc=498136139 |ol=24962233M |editor-first2=Paula K. |editor-last2=Byers}}{{cite news |title=Pauling Finally Gets High School Diploma |url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1962-06-19/ed-1/seq-1/ |access-date=August 3, 2022 |work=Evening Star |date=June 19, 1962 |at=p. 1 col 6}}

Pauling held a number of jobs to earn money for his future college expenses, including working part-time at a grocery store for {{currency|8|USD}} per week (equivalent to {{currency|{{inflation|US|8|1916|r=-1}}|USD}} in {{inflation/year|US}}). His mother arranged an interview with the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland, Mr. Schwietzerhoff, who hired him as an apprentice machinist at a salary of {{currency|40|USD}} per month (equivalent to {{currency|{{inflation|US|40|1916|r=-1}}|USD}} in {{inflation/year|US}}). This was soon raised to {{currency|50|USD}} per month.{{r|GoGo|p=23}} Pauling also set up a photography laboratory with two friends.{{r|GoGo|p=24}} In September 1917, Pauling was finally admitted by Oregon State University. He immediately resigned from the machinist's job and informed his mother, who saw no point in a university education, of his plans.{{r|GoGo|p=25}}

File:LinusPaulingGraduation1922.jpg, 1922]]

In his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill.{{r|GoGo|p=26}} His roommate was childhood pal and lifelong best friend Lloyd Jeffress.{{cite web|last1=Pauling|first1=Linus|title=Life with Lloyd Jeffress, June 5, 1986|url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/07/02/paulings-best-friend-lloyd-jeffress/|website=The Pauling Blog|publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections and Archives Research Center|access-date=1 June 2016|date=2009-07-02}} He was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity.{{Cite web |last=Swanson |first=Stephen |date=October 3, 2000 |title=OSU fraternity to donate Pauling treasures to campus library |url=http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2000/oct/osu-fraternity-donate-pauling-treasures-campus-library |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202915/http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2000/oct/osu-fraternity-donate-pauling-treasures-campus-library |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |access-date=April 29, 2013 |website=Oregon State University |language=en}} After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother. The college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis, a course he had just finished taking himself. He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned {{currency|100|USD}} a month (equivalent to {{currency|{{inflation|US|100|1920|r=-2}}|USD}} in {{inflation/year|US}}), enabling him to continue his studies.{{r|GoGo|p=29}}

In his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules.{{r|GoGo|p=29}} He decided to focus his research on how the physical and chemical properties of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry.

Engineering professor Samuel Graf (1887–1966){{cite web|url=https://engineering.oregonstate.edu/alumni-partners/oregon-stater-awards/searchable-awards-database/samuel-graf-engineering-hall-fame |title=Samuel Graf : Engineering Hall of Fame - 1998 | College of Engineering | Oregon State University |date=3 October 2022 }}{{cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/corvallis-gazette-times/31584297/ |title=Long-Time OSU Faculty Man, Sam Graf, Dies {Article clipped from Corvallis Gazette-Times) |website=newspapers.com |date=25 July 1966 }} selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a mechanics and materials course.{{r|GoGo|p=29}}{{Cite web |title=Pauling's Years as an Undergraduate at Oregon Agricultural College, Part 2 (1919–1922) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page6.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031065844/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page6.html |archive-date=October 31, 2021 |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Oregon State University}}{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url=https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinginhi0000paul |title=Linus Pauling: in his own words : selected writings, speeches, and interviews |date=1995 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-81387-5 |editor-last=Marinacci |editor-first=Barbara |location=New York City |page=39 |language=en-us |author-mask=4 |access-date=May 27, 2015 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}} During the winter of his senior year, Pauling taught a chemistry course for home economics majors. It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller.{{r|GoGo|p=31}}{{r|Marinacci|p=41}}{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Biographical Timeline |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/lpbio/timeline.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302113523/https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/about/linus-pauling-biographical-timeline |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |access-date=November 10, 2011 |website=Linus Pauling Institute |publisher=Oregon State University |language=en-us}}{{Cite news |last=Richard |first=Terry |date=May 3, 2013 |title=Ava Helen Pauling, wife of Linus Pauling, subject of biography by Corvallis author Mina Carson |language=en |work=The Oregonian |url=http://www.oregonlive.com/books/index.ssf/2013/05/ava_helen_pauling_wife_of_linu.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=June 2, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513195013/https://www.oregonlive.com/books/2013/05/ava_helen_pauling_wife_of_linu.html |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |issn=8750-1317}}

In 1922, Pauling graduated with a degree in chemical engineering. He went on to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, under the guidance of Roscoe Dickinson and Richard Tolman. His graduate research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure of crystals. He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his PhD in physical chemistry and mathematical physics, summa cum laude, in 1925.{{Cite web |date=June 12, 1925 |title=Commencement 1925 California Institute of Technology Pasadena |url=http://caltechcampuspubs.library.caltech.edu/2537/1/1925.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101163715/http://caltechcampuspubs.library.caltech.edu/2537/1/1925.pdf |archive-date=November 1, 2020 |access-date=March 29, 2013 |publisher=California Institute of Technology}}

{{external media |width=190px | float = right | headerimage= 170px | video1 = [http://watch.opb.org/video/1954582651/ Linus Pauling], Oregon Experience, Oregon Historical Society}}In 1926, Pauling was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to travel to Europe, to study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were experts in the new field of quantum mechanics and other branches of physics. Pauling became interested in how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London.{{Cite conference |date=December 9, 2010 |orig-date=1996-10-31 |title=Realism and anti-realism in the philosophy of science |url={{GBurl|id=mvYIkgAACAAJ|page=161}} |conference=Beijing International Conference 1992 |location=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer |page=161 |isbn=978-90-481-4493-8 |ol=28281917M |access-date=May 27, 2015 |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Robert S. |editor2-last=Hilpinen |editor2-first=Risto |editor3-last=Qiu |editor3-first=Ren-Zong}} Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules.{{Cite web |title=About Linus Pauling |url=https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship/about |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302175453/https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship/about |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |access-date=April 13, 2022 |website=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory |language=en}}

In 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at Caltech in theoretical chemistry.{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url=https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w |title=Oral history interview with Linus C. Pauling |date=April 6, 1987 |publisher=Science History Institute |location=Denver |publication-place=Philadelphia |language=en |author-mask=4 |access-date=April 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816110527/https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |url-status=live |interviewer-last=Sturchio |interviewer-first=Jeffrey L.}} He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his X-ray crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created the five rules now known as Pauling's rules.{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |author-mask=4 |date=April 1, 1929 |title=The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=1010–1026 |doi=10.1021/ja01379a006|bibcode=1929JAChS..51.1010P }}{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url={{GBurl|id=L-1K9HmKmUUC}} |title=The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals; an introduction to modern structural chemistry |date=January 31, 1960 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0 |edition=3rd |location=Ithaca, New York |pages=543–562 |ol=26811428M |author-mask=4 |orig-date=1939}} By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor. In 1931, the American Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger.{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=December 2004 |title=The Langmuir Prize |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page28.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212140745/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page28.html |archive-date=December 12, 2020 |access-date=February 29, 2008 |website=Oregon State University |language=en}} The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom.{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |author-mask=4 |date=March 1, 1932 |title=The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=988–1003 |doi=10.1021/ja01342a022|bibcode=1932JAChS..54..988P }}

At Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley, who spent part of his research and teaching schedule as a visitor at Caltech each year.{{Cite book |last=Monk |first=Ray |url={{GBurl|id=EkJ9aWTjWjUC|page=203}} |title=Robert Oppenheimer : a life inside the center |date=March 11, 2014 |publisher=Anchor Books |isbn=978-0-385-72204-9 |edition=First Anchor Books |page=203 |ol=32935915M |author-link=Ray Monk |orig-date=2012}} Pauling was also affiliated with Berkeley, serving as a visiting lecturer in physics and chemistry from 1929 to 1934.{{Cite web |title=Early Career at the California Institute of Technology (1927–1930) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page10.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112063521/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page10.html |archive-date=November 12, 2021 |access-date=May 18, 2017 |website=Oregon State University |language=en}} Oppenheimer even gave Pauling a stunning personal collection of minerals.{{Cite web |title=A Lost Ally |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page20.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820230846/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/narrative/page20.html |archive-date=August 20, 2021 |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Oregon State University |language=en}} The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. Their relationship soured when Oppenheimer tried to pursue Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. When Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer came to their home and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. She flatly refused, and reported the incident to Pauling. He immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer.{{r|Nature|p=152}}

In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about gas-phase electron diffraction from Herman Francis Mark. After returning, he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, Lawrence Olin Brockway, and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances.{{Cite book |last1=Hargittai |first1=István |url={{GBurl|id=KPqac4Y551AC|page=134}} |title=In our own image: personal symmetry in discovery |last2=Hargittai |first2=Magdolna |date=February 29, 2000 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-0-306-46091-3 |location=New York City |language=en |lccn=99033173 |ol=9669915M |access-date=May 27, 2015}}

Pauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932.{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=4 |date=September 1, 1932 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=3570–3582 |doi=10.1021/ja01348a011 |bibcode=1932JAChS..54.3570P |issn=0002-7863 |lccn=16003159 |oclc=01226990}} Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements{{thinsp|—}}the Pauling Electronegativity Scale{{thinsp|—}}which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules.{{Cite web |date=March 17, 2009 |title=The Pauling Electronegativity Scale: Part 2, Inspired by Biology |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/03/17/the-pauling-electronegativity-scale-part-2-inspired-by-biology/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117185840/https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/03/17/the-pauling-electronegativity-scale-part-2-inspired-by-biology/ |archive-date=November 17, 2021 |access-date=March 17, 2009 |website=Oregon State University |language=en}}

In 1936, Pauling was promoted to chairman of the division of chemistry and chemical engineering at Caltech, and to the position of director of the Gates and Crellin Laboratories of Chemistry. He would hold both positions until 1958. Pauling also spent a year in 1948 at the University of Oxford as George Eastman Visiting Professor and Fellow of Balliol.{{Cite web |date=August 21, 1994 |title=Obituary: Professor Linus Pauling |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-professor-linus-pauling-1377923.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616040502/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-professor-linus-pauling-1377923.html |archive-date=June 16, 2021 |access-date=January 25, 2018 |website=The Independent |language=en}}

File:Linus Pauling 1955a.jpg

In the late 1920s, Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond. Between 1937 and 1938, he took a position as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at Cornell University. While at Cornell, he delivered a series of nineteen lectures{{Cite web |title=Outline of the George Fischer Baker Lectureship, Cornell University |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1937s.3-outline-01-large.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112063624/http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1937s.3-outline-01-large.html |archive-date=November 12, 2021 |access-date=April 13, 2022 |website=Oregon State University |language=en}} and completed the bulk of his famous textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond.{{Cite web |date=July 30, 2014 |title=The George Fischer Baker Lectureship and the Beginnings of the Manuscript |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2014/07/30/the-george-fischer-baker-lectureship-and-the-beginnings-of-the-manuscript/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307085556/https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2014/07/30/the-george-fischer-baker-lectureship-and-the-beginnings-of-the-manuscript/ |archive-date=March 7, 2022 |access-date=June 3, 2015 |website=The Pauling Blog |publisher=Oregon State University |language=en}}{{rp|Preface}} It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances". Pauling's book has been considered "chemistry's most influential book of this century and its effective bible".{{Cite book |last=Watson |first=James D. |url=https://archive.org/details/passionfordnagen0000wats |title=A passion for DNA: genes, genomes, and society |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-860428-0 |edition=2003 |location=Oxford |ol=7401431M |author-link=James Watson |via=Internet Archive}} In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than seventy years after the first publication.{{Cite web |title=The nature of the chemical bond (citations and estimated counts) |url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=b0B12YAAAAAJ&citation_for_view=b0B12YAAAAAJ:j5aT6aphRxQC |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Google Scholar}}

Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization.{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |year=1928 |title=London's paper. General ideas on bonds |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci3.001.21.html |access-date=June 2, 2015 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}} While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be (mathematically) 'mixed' or combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp³ hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp{{sup|2}} hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene.{{r|Pauling1960|pages=111–120}} Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules.

Another area which he explored was the relationship between ionic bonding, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and covalent bonding, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, and that for most actual cases of bonding, the quantum-mechanical wave function for a polar molecule AB is a combination of wave functions for covalent and ionic molecules.{{r|Pauling1960|page=66}} Here Pauling's electronegativity concept is particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond.{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=1930s |title=Notes and Calculations re: Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci5.001.14.html |access-date=February 29, 2008 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}

The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the prototype, benzene.{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=January 6, 1934 |title=Benzene |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/sci2.004.6.html |access-date=February 29, 2008 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}} The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist Friedrich Kekulé. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and double bonds, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "resonance" was later applied to this phenomenon.{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=July 29, 1946 |title=Resonance |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/notes/1946a.3.html |access-date=February 29, 2008 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}} In a sense, this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar bonding, both described above, because all three phenomena involve combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In 1929, Pauling published five rules which help to predict and explain crystal structures of ionic compounds.{{Cite journal |last=Pauling, Linus |author-link=Pauling L |year=1929 |title=The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals |journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=1010–1026 |doi=10.1021/ja01379a006|bibcode=1929JAChS..51.1010P }}

These rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius to anion radius, (2) the electrostatic bond strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) the rule of parsimony.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

File:Linus Pauling 1941.png

Image:Helix electron density myoglobin 2nrl 17-32.jpg

In the mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation's Warren Weaver, decided to strike out into new areas of interest.{{Cite book |last=Kay |first=Lily E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vEHeNI2a8OEC&pg=PA148 |title=The molecular vision of life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the rise of the new biology |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511143-9 |location=New York [u.a.] |pages=148–151 |access-date=May 27, 2015}} Although Pauling's early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance, in part because of Caltech's growing strength in biology. Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant.{{Cite book |last=Califano |first=Salvatore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s-sCt4RT0bMC&pg=PA198 |title=Pathways to modern chemical physics |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-28179-2 |location=Heidelberg [Germany] |page=198 |access-date=May 27, 2015}} His early work in this area included studies of the structure of hemoglobin with his student Charles D. Coryell. He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an oxygen molecule. As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of protein structure in general. He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not.{{Cite book |last=Livio |first=Mario |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0XmmAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA285 |title=Brilliant blunders: from Darwin to Einstein: colossal mistakes by great scientists that changed our understanding of life and the universe |date=2014 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-4391-9237-5 |location=[S.l.]}}

It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In 1951, based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and the planar nature of the peptide bond, Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson correctly proposed the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary structural motifs in protein secondary structure.{{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L |last2=Corey |first2=RB |year=1951 |title=Configurations of Polypeptide Chains With Favored Orientations Around Single Bonds: Two New Pleated Sheets |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=729–40 |bibcode=1951PNAS...37..729P |doi=10.1073/pnas.37.11.729 |pmc=1063460 |pmid=16578412 |doi-access=free}}Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 95-100. This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-integer number of amino acid residues; for the alpha helix it is 3.7 amino acid residues per turn.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Pauling then proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was a triple helix;{{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L |last2=Corey |first2=RB |date=February 1953 |title=A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=84–97 |bibcode=1953PNAS...39...84P |doi=10.1073/pnas.39.2.84 |pmc=1063734 |pmid=16578429 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling's DNA Model |url=http://www.farooqhussain.org/projects/paulingdnamodel |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204210701/http://www.farooqhussain.org/projects/paulingdnamodel |archive-date=February 4, 2012 |access-date=June 2, 2015}} his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. Sir Lawrence Bragg had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the Cavendish Laboratory that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, James Watson and Francis Crick were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA. They later benefited from unpublished data from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College which showed evidence for a helix and planar base stacking along the helix axis. Early in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. Pauling described this situation as "the biggest disappointment in his life".{{Cite web |last=Dye |first=Lee |date=June 2, 1985 |title=The Deeply Personal War of Linus Pauling: Nobel Prize-Winning Chemist Still Battles for His Controversial Vitamin Theory |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-06-02-vw-15174-story.html |access-date=April 9, 2023 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}

During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies. This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day (this was at the start of the McCarthy period in the United States). Politics did not play a critical role. Not only did Corey see the images at the time, but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper. He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin's lab and see her work, but chose not to.{{rp|414–415}} Despite these times, Pauling chose to move on from them and be thankful for the discoveries that he had already found.

Pauling also studied enzyme reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action.{{Cite book |last=Metzler |first=David E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X194AYXInC8C&pg=PA330 |title=Biochemistry |date=2003 |publisher=Harcourt, Academic Pr. |isbn=978-0-12-492541-0 |edition=2nd |location=San Diego |ref=Metzler}} He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures.{{Cite book |first1=Julius M. |last1=Cruse |first2=Robert E. |last2=Lewis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNI5Lk2z37sC&pg=PA21 |title=Atlas of immunology |date=2010 |publisher=CRC Press/Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-4398-0268-7 |edition=3rd |location=Boca Raton, FL |page=21 |access-date=May 27, 2015}} Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbrück, he wrote an early paper arguing that DNA replication was likely to be due to complementarity, rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.{{Cite book |last=Tudge |author-link=Colin Tudge |first=Colin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wprqex2OGY4C&pg=PT74 |title=The engineer in the garden: Genes and genetics: from the idea of heredity to the creation of life |date=1995 |publisher=Hill and Wang |isbn=978-0-8090-4259-3 |edition=1st American |location=New York |access-date=May 27, 2015}}

File:Linus Pauling 1948.png

In November 1949, Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert Wells published "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease"{{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Itano |first2=H. A. |last3=Singer |first3=S. J. |author3-link=Seymour Jonathan Singer |last4=Wells |first4=I. C. |date=November 25, 1949 |title=Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/papers/1949p.15.htmlfddsf |journal=Science |volume=110 |issue=2865 |pages=543–548 |bibcode=1949Sci...110..543P |doi=10.1126/science.110.2865.543 |pmid=15395398 |s2cid=31674765 |access-date=June 2, 2015}} in the journal Science. It was the first proof of a human disease being caused by an abnormal protein, and sickle cell anemia became the first disease understood at the molecular level. (It was not, however, the first demonstration that variant forms of hemoglobin could be distinguished by electrophoresis, which had been shown several years earlier by Maud Menten and collaborators).{{Cite journal |last1=Andersch |first1=MA |last2=Wilson |first2=DA |last3=Menten |first3=ML. |year=1944 |title=Sedimentation constants and electrophoretic mobilities of adult and fetal carbonylhemoglobin |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=153 |pages=301–305 |doi=10.1016/S0021-9258(18)51237-0 |doi-access=free}} Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease have a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that individuals with sickle cell trait have both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was the first demonstration causally linking an abnormal protein to a disease, and also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determines the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence – the dawn of molecular genetics.{{Cite journal |last=Strasser |first=Bruno J. |date=August 30, 2002 |title=Linus Pauling's "molecular diseases": Between history and memory |url=http://biologie.unige.ch/assets/brunostrasser/Strasser_AJMG_2002.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://biologie.unige.ch/assets/brunostrasser/Strasser_AJMG_2002.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=83–93 |citeseerx=10.1.1.613.5672 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.10542 |pmid=12400054 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}

His success with sickle cell anemia led Pauling to speculate that a number of other diseases, including mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, might result from flawed genetics. As chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories, he encouraged the hiring of researchers with a chemical-biomedical approach to mental illness, a direction not always popular with established Caltech chemists.{{Cite news |date=August 21, 1994 |title=A Flamboyant Scientist's Legacy : Scholar: Linus C. Pauling's supporters and detractors join in calling the two-time Nobel winner one of the most significant figures of this century |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-08-21-mn-29601-story.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}}{{rp|2}}

In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled "Molecular Medicine".{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=October 1951 |title=Molecular Medicine |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/pictures/1951s.17.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers}} In the late 1950s, he studied the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction. In the 1960s, as part of his interest in the effects of nuclear weapons, he investigated the role of mutations in evolution, proposing with his student Emile Zuckerkandl, the molecular evolutionary clock, the idea that mutations in proteins and DNA accumulate at a constant rate over time .{{Cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Gregory J. |date=1998 |title=Emile Zuckerkandl, Linus Pauling, and the molecular evolutionary clock, 1959–1965 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4331476|journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=155–78| doi=10.1023/A:1004394418084|jstor=4331476 |pmid=11620303 |s2cid=5660841 |access-date=June 11, 2023}}

File:Linus Pauling 1962.jpg

On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with the words "I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei." On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, Science and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=1965 |title=The Close-Packed Spheron Model of atomic nuclei and its relation to the shell model |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=989–994 |bibcode=1965PNAS...54..989P |doi=10.1073/pnas.54.4.989 |pmc=219778 |pmid=16578621 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L |date=October 15, 1965 |title=The close-packed-spheron theory and nuclear fission |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-026.html |journal=Science |volume=150 |issue=3694 |pages=297–305 |bibcode=1965Sci...150..297P |doi=10.1126/science.150.3694.297 |pmid=17742357}} For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model.{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=July 1966 |title=The close-packed-spheron theory of nuclear structure and the neutron excess for stable nuclei (Dedicated to the seventieth anniversary of Professor Horia Hulubei) |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-048.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Revue Roumain de Physique}}{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=December 1967 |title=Magnetic-moment evidence for the polyspheron structure of the lighter atomic nuclei |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-068.html |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=2175–2178 |bibcode=1967PNAS...58.2175P |doi=10.1073/pnas.58.6.2175 |pmc=223816 |pmid=16591577 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=November 1969 |title=Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-075.html |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=807–9 |bibcode=1969PNAS...64..807P |doi=10.1073/pnas.64.3.807 |pmc=223305 |pmid=16591799 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite web |last1=Pauling |first1=Linus |last2=Arthur B. Robinson |year=1975 |title=Rotating clusters in nuclei |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-084.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Canadian Journal of Physics}}{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=February 1991 |title=Transition from one revolving cluster to two revolving clusters in the ground-state rotational bands of nuclei in the lanthanon region |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/rnb/26/26-125.html |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=820–823 |bibcode=1991PNAS...88..820P |doi=10.1073/pnas.88.3.820 |pmc=50905 |pmid=11607150 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |doi-access=free}}

The basic idea behind Pauling's spheron model is that a nucleus can be viewed as a set of "clusters of nucleons". The basic nucleon clusters include the deuteron [np], helion [pnp], and triton [npn]. Even–even nuclei are described as being composed of clusters of alpha particles, as has often been done for light nuclei.{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=November 15, 1969 |title=Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=807–809 |bibcode=1969PNAS...64..807P |doi=10.1073/pnas.64.3.807 |pmc=223305 |pmid=16591799 |doi-access=free}} Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model. In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model:{{Cite web |title=Linus C. Pauling, Ph.D. Biography and Interview |url=https://www.achievement.org/achiever/linus-pauling/#interview/ |website=www.achievement.org |publisher=American Academy of Achievement}}

{{blockquote|Now recently, I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. From reading the physics literature, Physical Review Letters and other journals, I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have been able to discover, has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it. So I just move along at my own speed, making calculations ...}}

File:Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer 2012 002 5132 cn69m4659.tiff

Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II. At the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. He declined, not wanting to uproot his family.{{Cite web |title=Hiroshima |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page4.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement |publisher=Special Collections & Archives Research Center, Oregon State University}}

[[File:Beckman Model 735 Dissolved O2 Analyzer 2012 002 3598 jm214p459 crop.tiff|thumb|right|

Beckman Model 735 Dissolved {{O2|nolink=no}} Analyzer, later model based on Pauling's design, 1968]]

File:Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter with infant incubator 73666474j.tiff

Pauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts.{{Cite book |last=Kay |first=Lily E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVtMCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT161 |title=The molecular vision of life : Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the rise of the new biology |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511143-9 |location=New York |page=179 |access-date=December 27, 2015}} The National Defense Research Committee called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. In response Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter, which was developed and manufactured by Arnold O. Beckman, Inc. After the war, Beckman adapted the oxygen analyzers for use in incubators for premature babies.{{Cite book |last1=Thackray |first1=Arnold |author1-link=Arnold Thackray |title=Arnold O. Beckman : one hundred years of excellence |last2=Minor Myers, Jr. |publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation |others=foreword by James D. Watson |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-941901-23-9 |location=Philadelphia, Pa. |name-list-style=amp}}{{rp|180–186}}{{Cite web |title=Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer |url=http://www.woodlibrarymuseum.org/museum/item/525/beckman-d2-oxygen-analyzer |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Wood Library-Museum of Anesthesiology}}

In 1942, Pauling successfully submitted a proposal on "The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions in the Attempt to Find a Substitute for Human Serum for Transfusions". His project group, which included Joseph B. Koepfli and Dan H. Campbell, developed a possible replacement for human blood plasma in transfusions: polyoxy gelatin (Oxypolygelatin).{{Cite web |date=January 27, 2009 |title=Blood and War: The Development of Oxypolygelatin, Part 1 |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2009/01/27/blood-and-war-the-development-of-oxypolygelatin-part-1/ |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=The Pauling Blog}}{{Cite book |last=Chadarevian |first=Soraya de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2B4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |title=Molecularizing biology and medicine new practices and alliances, 1910s–1970s |date=1998 |publisher=Harwood Academic |isbn=978-90-5702-293-7 |location=Amsterdam |page=109 |access-date=May 28, 2015}}

Other wartime projects with more direct military applications included work on explosives, rocket propellants and the patent for an armor-piercing shell. In October 1948, Pauling, along with Lee A. DuBridge, William A. Fowler, Max Mason, and Bruce H. Sage, was awarded a Presidential Medal for Merit by President Harry S. Truman. The citation credits him for his "imaginative mind", "brilliant success", and "exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services".{{Cite web |title=Presidential Medal for Merit |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1948h.1.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling Awards Honors and Medals}}{{Cite web |title=The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/Views/Exhibit/narrative/biographical.html |access-date=February 11, 2008 |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine}}{{Cite news |last=Paulus |first=John Allen |date=November 5, 1995 |title=Pauling's Prizes |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D05E3DE1739F936A35752C1A963958260& |access-date=December 9, 2007}} In 1949, he served as president of the American Chemical Society.{{Cite web |title=ACS President: Linus Pauling (1901–1994) |url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/about/president/acspresidents/linus-pauling.html |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=ACS Chemistry for Life}}

The aftermath of the Manhattan Project and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In June 1945, a "May-Johnson Bill" began{{Citation |title=Part VI: The Manhattan District in Peacetime: The May-Johnson Bill |date=1998 |url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/mp/p6s6.shtml |publisher=Atomic Archive |access-date=October 19, 2019}}{{Citation |title=Atomic Energy Commission |date=November 18, 2016 |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/atomic-energy-commission |publisher=Atomic Heritage Foundation |access-date=October 19, 2019}}{{Citation |title=Roy Glauber & Priscilla McMillan on Oppenheimer – Atomic Energy Commission |date=June 6, 2013 |url=https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/roy-glauber-priscilla-mcmillan-oppenheimer |publisher=Voices of the Manhattan Project |access-date=October 19, 2019}} that would become the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (ICCASP) on atomic weapons; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership.{{Citation |title=The Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions |date=2009 |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2010/07/15/the-independent-citizens-committee-for-the-arts-sciences-and-professions/amp/ |publisher=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement |access-date=October 19, 2019}} On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss academic freedom, during which Pauling said, "There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom, these rights, by the selfish, the overly ambitious, the misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit – and we must always be on the alert against this threat, and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous."

In 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein.{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Einstein |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page9.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}} Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons.

File:Letter from Ruth B. Shipley, Chief Passport Division, Department of State (United States) to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952.jpg, Chief Passport Division, Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952]]

His political activism prompted the US State Department to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London.{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling |url=http://usstampgallery.com/view.php?id=3228fbec24ea876e8035f61b5fcd643af29a611c |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=U.S. Stamp Gallery}}{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=May 1952 |title=The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/notes/1952a.18.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}} In a speech before the US Senate on June 6 of the same year, Senator Wayne Morse publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a "limited passport" to attend the conference.Robert Paradowski (2011), Oregon State University, Special Collections p.18, [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/chronology/page18.html Proteins, Passports, and the Prize (1950–1954)], retrieved February 1, 2013[https://books.google.com/books?id=sg0AAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA255 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Vol. VIII, Nr. 7] (Okt. 1952) p. 254, Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. His full passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in Stockholm where he received his first Nobel Prize.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Joining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto issued July 9, 1955.{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Russell/Einstein |author-link=Thomas Hager |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page25.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}} He also supported the Mainau Declaration of July 15, 1955, signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.{{Cite book |last=Hermann |first=Armin |title=The new physics: the route into the atomic age: in memory of Albert Einstein, Max von Laue, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner |date=1979 |publisher=Inter Nationes |location=Bonn-Bad Godesberg |page=130}}

In May 1957, working with Washington University in St. Louis professor Barry Commoner, Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing.{{Cite web |title=The Baby Tooth Survey |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/committee-for-nuclear-information/ |access-date=June 1, 2011 |website=The Pauling Blog}} On January 15, 1958, Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld calling for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons. It was signed by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1962 Linus Pauling: Nobel Lecture |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1962/pauling-lecture.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Nobel Prize.org}}{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Receives the Nobel Peace Prize |url=https://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/united-nations-bomb-test-petition/ |access-date=December 10, 2013 |website=The Pauling Blog}}

In February 1958, Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist Edward Teller about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations.{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Kelly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlBCTlVq_0EC&pg=PA113 |title=Disrupting science : social movements, American scientists, and the politics of the military, 1945–1975 |date=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11352-4 |location=Princeton |page=113 |access-date=May 28, 2015}} Later in 1958, Pauling published No more war!, in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself. He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to "attack the problem of preserving the peace".

Pauling also supported the work of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI). This group, headed by Barry Commoner, Eric Reiss, M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of children across North America. The "Baby Tooth Survey", published by Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.{{Cite journal |last=Reiss |first=Louise Zibold |author-link=Louise Reiss |date=November 24, 1961 |title=Strontium-90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth: Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium-90 uptake by human populations |journal=Science |volume=134 |issue=3491 |pages=1669–1673 |doi=10.1126/science.134.3491.1669 |pmid=14491339}}{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=Strontium-90 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page26.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}}{{Cite web |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |date=November 29, 2007 |title=The Right to Petition |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page27.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}} The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban,{{Cite book |last=McCormick |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xC16yGp9-HUC&pg=PA70 |title=Reclaiming paradise : the global environmental movement |date=1991 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20660-2 |edition=1st Midland |location=Bloomington |access-date=May 27, 2015}} as is the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey".{{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Garland E. |author1-link=Garland E. Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7axYHFEomgMC&pg=PA302 |title=Science, history and social activism : a tribute to Everett Mendelsohn |last2=MacLeod |first2=Roy M. |date=2001 |publisher=Kluwer Academic |isbn=978-1-4020-0495-7 |location=Dordrecht |page=302 |access-date=May 27, 2015}}

Public pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. On the day that the treaty went into force, October 10, 1963, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Nobel Peace Prize for 1962. (No prize had previously been awarded for that year.){{Cite news |date=October 10, 1963 |title=Nobel Peace Prize Awarded to Pauling |work=Palo Alto Times |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1963n.30.html |access-date=May 27, 2015}} They described him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."{{Cite web |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=October 10, 1963 |title=Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/notes/rnb23-100.html |access-date=December 13, 2007 |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections}} Pauling himself acknowledged his wife Ava's deep involvement in peace work, and regretted that she was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with him.{{Cite web |date=May 9, 2014 |title=Linus Pauling Biography |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/linus-pauling-biography |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling Institute}}

File:Linus Pauling's beret at the Nobel Museum (51969).jpg]]

Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for Soviet communism. In 1960, he was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee,{{Cite web |title=issued to Linus Pauling by the Internal Security Subcommittee of the United States Senate. June 20, 1960 |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/papers/bio2.021.3.html |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement}} which termed him "the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country". A headline in Life magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as "A Weird Insult from Norway".{{Cite journal |last=Kovac |first=Jeffrey |date=1999 |title=A weird insult from Norway: Linus Pauling as public intellectual |journal=Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal |volume=82 |issue=1/2 |pages=91–106 |jstor=41178914}}{{Cite magazine |date=October 25, 1963 |title=A Weird Insult From Norway |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UlIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA6 |magazine=Life |volume=5 |page=4 |number=17}}

Pauling was a frequent target of the National Review magazine. In an article entitled "The Collaborators" in the magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Pauling was referred to not only as a collaborator, but as a "fellow traveler" of proponents of Soviet-style communism. In 1963, Pauling sued the magazine, its publisher William Rusher, and its editor William F. Buckley, Jr for $1 million. He lost both his libel suits and the 1968 appeal (unlike his earlier 1963 libel case against the Hearst Corporation), because in the meantime the landmark case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan had established the actual malice standard for libel lawsuits by public figures, requiring that not only falsehood but deliberate lying should be proved by the plaintiff in such cases.{{Cite web |date=January 30, 2013 |title=The National Review Lawsuit |url=http://paulingblog.wordpress.com/2013/01/30/the-national-review-lawsuit/ |access-date=December 20, 2013 |publisher=Paulingblog}}{{Cite web |title=A Tough Conclusion to the National Review Lawsuit |url=http://paulingblog.wordpress.com/tag/william-f-buckley/ |access-date=December 20, 2013 |publisher=Paulingblog}}{{Cite web |title=Pauling v. Nat'l Review, Inc |url=http://law.justia.com/cases/new-york/court-of-appeals/1968/22-n-y-2d-818-0.html |access-date=December 20, 2013 |website=Justia.com}}{{Cite news |last=Saxon |first=Wolfgang |date=August 30, 1998 |title=C. Dickerman Williams, 97, Free-Speech Lawyer, Is Dead |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/08/30/nyregion/c-dickerman-williams-97-free-speech-lawyer-is-dead.html |access-date=December 20, 2013}}

His peace activism, his frequent travels, and his enthusiastic expansion into chemical-biomedical research all aroused opposition at Caltech. In 1958, the Caltech Board of Trustees demanded that Pauling step down as chairman of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division.{{rp|2}} Although he had retained tenure as a full professor, Pauling chose to resign from Caltech after he received the Nobel peace prize money. He spent the next three years at the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions (1963–1967). In 1967, he moved to the University of California at San Diego, but remained there only briefly, leaving in 1969 in part because of political tensions with the Reagan-era board of regents.{{rp|3}} From 1969 to 1974, he accepted a position as professor of chemistry at Stanford University.

During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of increasing America's involvement in the Vietnam War caused an anti-war movement that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His efforts were ignored by the American government.{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement: Vietnam |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/narrative/page49.html |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries}}

File:27. Tagung 1977 Chemiker; Linus C. Pauling Porträt - W134Nr.108890d - Willy Pragher.jpg

Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1970.{{Cite journal |last=Mason |first=Stephen F. |date=1997 |title=The Science and Humanism of Linus Pauling (1901–1994) |url=http://oregonstate.edu/dept/spc/subpages/ahp/overview/entirearticle.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |volume=26 |pages=29–39 |doi=10.1039/cs9972600029 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515124732/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/spc/subpages/ahp/overview/entirearticle.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2009 |access-date=May 20, 2015}}{{Cite web |date=May 16, 2011 |title=Lenin Peace Prize Recipients |url=http://www.researchhistory.org/2011/05/16/lenin-peace-prize-recipients/ |website=Research History}} He continued his peace activism in the following years. He and his wife Ava helped to found the International League of Humanists in 1974.{{Cite web |title=Founders |url=http://www.intlh.com/index_enu.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611040404/http://www.intlh.com/index_enu.html |archive-date=June 11, 2015 |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=International League of Humanists for peace and tolerance }} He was president of the scientific advisory board of the World Union for Protection of Life and also one of the signatories of the Dubrovnik–Philadelphia statement of 1974/1976.{{Cite web |title=The Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement /1974–1976/ (short version) |url=http://www.intlh.com/statement.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035630/http://www.intlh.com/statement.html |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |access-date=May 28, 2015 |website=International League of Humanists }} Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member of the International Academy of Science, Munich, until the end of his life.{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.ias-icsd.org/history.html |access-date=March 16, 2015 |website=International Academy of Science, Munich |archive-date=2015-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142953/http://www.ias-icsd.org/history.html |url-status=dead }}

Pauling was also a supporter of the Fair Play for Cuba Committee.{{cite book |editor1-last=Johnson |editor1-first=Loch K. |title=Handbook of Intelligence Studies |date=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=275}}

He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution.{{Cite web |title=Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961 |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8 |access-date=July 1, 2023 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}{{Cite web |title=Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.6 |access-date=July 3, 2023 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}} As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt a Constitution for the Federation of Earth.{{Cite web |title=Preparing earth constitution {{!}} Global Strategies & Solutions {{!}} The Encyclopedia of World Problems |url=http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465 |access-date=July 15, 2023 |website=The Encyclopedia of World Problems {{!}} Union of International Associations (UIA) |archive-date=2023-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719215501/http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465 |url-status=dead }}

Pauling supported a limited form of eugenics by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible mark – such as a forehead tattoo – to discourage potential mates with the same defect, in order to reduce the number of babies with diseases such as sickle cell anemia.{{Cite web |last=Mendelsohn |first=Everett |author-link=Everett Mendelsohn |date=March–April 2000 |title=The Eugenic Temptation |url=http://harvardmagazine.com/2000/03/the-eugenic-temptation.html |website=Harvard Magazine}}{{Cite web |last=Special Collections & Archives Research Center, Oregon State University Libraries |date=2015 |title=Eugenics for Alleviating Human Suffering |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/narrative/page35.html |access-date=May 30, 2020 |website=It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia}}

{{main|Vitamin C megadosage}}

File:Pauling Vit C Book Cover.jpg.{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=How to Live Longer and Feel Better |publisher=Avon Books |year=1987 |edition=1 |location=New York |ol=18076125M}}]]

In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a renal disease. Following the recommendations of Thomas Addis, who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as "nutritionist, cook, and eventually as deputy 'doctor'", Pauling believed he was able to control the disease with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free diet and vitamin supplements.{{Cite book |last=Peitzman |first=Steven J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FUDO5K1pAoC&pg=PA72 |title=Dropsy, dialysis, transplant: a short history of failing kidneys |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8018-8734-5 |location=Baltimore |pages=72–8; 190}} Thus Pauling's initial – and intensely personal – exposure to the idea of treating disease with vitamin supplements was positive.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In 1965, Pauling read Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry by Abram Hoffer and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases.{{Cite book |title=Biochemical imbalances in disease a practitioner's handbook |publisher=Singing Dragon |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-85701-028-5 |editor-last=Nicolle |editor-first=Lorraine |location=London |page=27 |editor-last2=Beirne |editor-first2=Ann Woodriff}} In 1968, Pauling published a brief paper in Science entitled "Orthomolecular psychiatry",{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=Linus |date=April 1968 |title=Orthomolecular psychiatry. Varying the concentrations of substances normally present in the human body may control mental disease |journal=Science |volume=160 |issue=3825 |pages=265–71 |bibcode=1968Sci...160..265P |doi=10.1126/science.160.3825.265 |pmid=5641253 |s2cid=20153555}} giving a name to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s, and advocating that "orthomolecular therapy, the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of the brain, may be the preferred treatment for many mentally ill patients." Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized.{{Cite book |last=Cassileth |first=Barrie R. |author-link=Barrie R. Cassileth |title=The alternative medicine handbook: the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-393-04566-6 |location=New York |pages=67}}{{Cite web |date=February 2000 |title=Vitamin Therapy, Megadose / Orthomolecular Therapy |url=http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/PPI/UnconventionalTherapies/VitaminTherapyMegadoseOrthomolecularTherapy.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202102734/http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/PPI/UnconventionalTherapies/VitaminTherapyMegadoseOrthomolecularTherapy.htm |archive-date=February 2, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=BC Cancer Agency}}

In 1973, with Arthur B. Robinson and another colleague, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris. During the 1990s, Pauling put forward a comprehensive plan for the treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, a website was created expounding Pauling's treatment which it referred to as Pauling Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy believe that heart disease can be treated and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without drugs or heart operations.{{Cite web |title=PaulingTherapy.com – Reversing Heart Disease w/o Drugs is Possible |url=http://www.paulingtherapy.com/ |website=www.paulingtherapy.com}}

Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds. Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published Vitamin C and the Common Cold in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients.{{Cite web |last=Cameron |first=Ewan |author-link=Ewan Cameron |title=Cancer Bibliography: Ewan Cameron, M.D. and Vitamin C Therapy |url=http://www.doctoryourself.com/biblio_cameron.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Doctoryourself.com}} Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, Cancer and Vitamin C, that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public{{Cite news |last=Severo |first=Richard |date=August 21, 1994 |title=Linus C. Pauling Dies at 93; Chemist and Voice for Peace |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0228.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}} and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly terminal patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients.{{Cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=E |author1-link=Ewan Cameron |last2=Pauling |first2=L |date=October 1976 |title=Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=73 |issue=10 |pages=3685–9 |bibcode=1976PNAS...73.3685C |doi=10.1073/pnas.73.10.3685 |pmc=431183 |pmid=1068480 |doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=E |author1-link=Ewan Cameron |last2=Pauling |first2=L |date=September 1978 |title=Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Reevaluation of prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=75 |issue=9 |pages=4538–42 |bibcode=1978PNAS...75.4538C |doi=10.1073/pnas.75.9.4538 |pmc=336151 |pmid=279931 |doi-access=free}}

A re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be "terminal" much earlier than the comparison group.{{Cite journal |last=DeWys |first=WD |year=1982 |title=How to evaluate a new treatment for cancer |journal=Your Patient and Cancer |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=31–36}} Later clinical trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic led by oncologist Dr. Edward T. Creagan also concluded that high-dose (10,000 mg) vitamin C was no better than placebo at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C.{{Cite journal |last1=Creagan |first1=ET |last2=Moertel |first2=CG |last3=O'Fallon |first3=JR |date=September 1979 |title=Failure of high-dose vitamin C (ascorbic acid) therapy to benefit patients with advanced cancer. A controlled trial |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=301 |issue=13 |pages=687–90 |doi=10.1056/NEJM197909273011303 |pmid=384241}}{{Cite journal |last1=Moertel |first1=CG |last2=Fleming |first2=TR |last3=Creagan |first3=ET |last4=Rubin |first4=J |last5=O'Connell |first5=MJ |last6=Ames |first6=MM |date=January 1985 |title=High-dose vitamin C versus placebo in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer who have had no prior chemotherapy. A randomized double-blind comparison |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=312 |issue=3 |pages=137–41 |doi=10.1056/NEJM198501173120301 |pmid=3880867}}{{Cite journal |last=Tschetter |first=L |display-authors=etal |year=1983 |title=A community-based study of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in patients with advanced cancer |journal=Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology |volume=2 |page=92}} The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were quackery.{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Q |last2=Espey |first2=M. G. |last3=Sun |first3=A. Y. |last4=Lee |first4=J.-H. |last5=Krishna |first5=M. C. |last6=Shacter |first6=E. |last7=Choyke |first7=P. L. |last8=Pooput |first8=C. |last9=Kirk |first9=K. L. |last10=Buettner |first10=G. R. |last11=Levine |first11=M. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=21 |pages=8749–54 |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.8749C |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702854104 |pmc=1885574 |pmid=17502596 |doi-access=free}} Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation",{{Cite web |last=Goertzel |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Goertzel |year=1996 |title=Analyzing Pauling's Personality: A Three Generational, Three Decade Project |url=http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/goertzel.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014174038/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/goertzel.html |archive-date=October 14, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Special Collections, Oregon State University Libraries}}{{Cite book |last1=Pinch |first1=Trevor |author1-link=Trevor Pinch |title=Dr. Golem: how to think about medicine |last2=Collins |first2=Harry M. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-226-11366-1 |location=Chicago |pages=89–111 |chapter=Alternative Medicine: The Cases of Vitamin C and Cancer |chapter-url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/113663.html}} and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than intravenous vitamin C{{Cite journal |last=Levine |first=M |display-authors=etal |year=2006 |title=Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases |journal=CMAJ |volume=174 |issue=7 |pages=937–942 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.050346 |pmc=1405876 |pmid=16567755}} (which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling's original study). Pauling also criticised the Mayo Clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial, and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short; Pauling advocated continued high-dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient's life whereas the Mayo Clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2.5 months.{{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |url=https://archive.org/details/howtolivelongerf00paul/page/173 |title=How to Live Longer and Feel Better |publisher=Freeman |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-7167-1781-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/howtolivelongerf00paul/page/173 173–175]}}

Ultimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer. Despite this, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold, working with The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain-injured children.{{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L |date=November 1978 |title=Orthomolecular enhancement of human development |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/B/B/K/G/_/mmbbkg.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/B/B/K/G/_/mmbbkg.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |journal=Human Neurological Development |pages=47–51 |editor=Ralph Pelligra}} He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regime, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy.{{Cite web |last1=Saul |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Dr. Abram Hoffer |title=Abram Hoffer, M.D., PhD 50 Years of Megavitamin Research, Practice and Publication |url=http://www.doctoryourself.com/biblio_hoffer.html |access-date=August 5, 2007 |publisher=Doctoryourself.com}} A 2009 review also noted differences between the studies, such as the Mayo Clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C, and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously.{{Cite journal |last1=Ohno |first1=S |last2=Ohno |first2=Y |last3=Suzuki |first3=N |last4=Soma |first4=G |last5=Inoue |first5=M |year=2009 |title=High-dose vitamin C (ascorbic acid) therapy in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer |journal=Anticancer Research |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=809–15 |pmid=19414313}} Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer.{{Cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Carmel |last2=Hutton |first2=Brian |last3=Ng |first3=Terry |last4=Shorr |first4=Risa |last5=Clemons |first5=Mark |date=2015 |title=Is There a Role for Oral or Intravenous Ascorbate (Vitamin C) in Treating Patients With Cancer? A Systematic Review |journal=The Oncologist |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=210–223 |doi=10.1634/theoncologist.2014-0381 |pmc=4319640 |pmid=25601965}}{{Cite web |title=Vitamin C Fact Sheet for Health Professionals |url=http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/ |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=National Institutes of Health}}

File:Linus Pauling family 1954.jpg

Pauling married Ava Helen Miller on June 17, 1923. The marriage lasted until her death in 1981. They had four children.{{Cite web |date=n.d. |title=The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/MM/p-nid/53 |access-date=November 10, 2011 |publisher=United States National Library of Medicine}} Linus Carl Jr. (1925–2023) became a psychiatrist;{{cite news|title=Dr. Linus Carl Pauling Jr. Obituary|newspaper=Honolulu Star-Advertiser|date=November 5, 2023|url=https://hawaiiobituaries.com/us/obituaries/hawaiiobituaries/name/linus-pauling-obituary?id=53515681}} Peter (1931–2003) a crystallographer at University College London;{{cite book|chapter=Chapter 17. Peter Pauling by Matt McConnell|pages=203–240|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=twuhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 | title=Visions of Linus Pauling | isbn=978-981-12-6077-3 | editor=Petersen, Christoffer Eric | date=11 October 2022 | publisher=World Scientific }} Edward Crellin (1937–1997) a biologist;{{cite web|url=https://www.reed.edu/reed-magazine/in-memoriam/obituaries/november1997/e-crellin-pauling-1959.html |title=Obituary. E. Crellin Pauling '59 |date=November 1997|website=Reed Magazine, Reed College}} and Linda Helen (born 1932) married noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist Barclay Kamb.{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Biography |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/lpbio/lpbio2.html |access-date=November 10, 2011 |publisher=Linus Pauling Institute}}

Pauling was raised as a member of the Lutheran Church,{{Cite web |title=Oral history interview with Linus Carl Pauling, 1964 March 27 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/3448.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=American Institute of Physics |archive-date=2014-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806110327/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/3448.html |url-status=dead }} but later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church.{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling |url=http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography |archive-date=2018-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165013/http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html |url-status=dead }} Two years before his death, in a published dialogue with Buddhist philosopher Daisaku Ikeda, Pauling publicly declared his atheism.{{Cite book |last1=Pauling |first1=Linus |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780867202786/page/22 |title=A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue |last2=Ikeda |first2=Daisaku |publisher=Jones & Bartlett |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-86720-277-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780867202786/page/22 22] |quote=...I [Pauling] am not, however, militant in my atheism. The great English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is a militant atheist. I suppose he is interested in arguing about the existence of God. I am not. It was once quipped that there is no God and Dirac is his prophet.}}

On January 30, 1960, Pauling and his wife were using a cabin about {{convert|80|mi|km}} south of Monterey, California, and he decided to go for a walk on a coastal trail. He got lost and tried to climb the rocky cliff, but reached a large overhanging rock about {{convert|300|ft|m|sigfig=1}} above the ocean. He decided it was safest to stay there, and meanwhile he was reported missing. He spent a sleepless night on the cliff before being found after almost 24 hours.{{Cite web |date=February 1, 1960 |title=Dr. Pauling Rescued, On a Sea Cliff 24 Hrs |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/peace/newsclips/1960n.5.html |access-date=April 22, 2018 |website=scarc.library.oregonstate.edu |publisher=New York Herald Tribune |location=Special Collections & Archives Research Center, Oregon State University Libraries |format=clipping}}

Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 19:20 at home in Big Sur, California. He was 93 years old.Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 247. A grave marker for Pauling was placed in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon by his sister Pauline, but Pauling's ashes, along with those of his wife, were not buried there until 2005.{{Cite web |title=The Centennial: Who's Buried in Linus Pauling's Grave? |url=http://www.ci.oswego.or.us/sites/default/files/fileattachments/publicaffairs/webpage/13678/centennial_july2010.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ci.oswego.or.us/sites/default/files/fileattachments/publicaffairs/webpage/13678/centennial_july2010.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=December 26, 2012}}

Pauling's discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine.{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling |url=http://www.californiamuseum.org/inductee/linus-pauling |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=California Museum|date=February 17, 2012 }}{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling – Biographical |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1954/pauling-bio.html |access-date=October 6, 2016 |website=Nobelprize.org |publisher=Nobel Media AB 2014}}

His work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern quantum chemistry. The Nature of the Chemical Bond was the standard work for many years,{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Neil A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tKxOpAh78IsC&pg=PA303 |title=American social leaders and activists |date=2002 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-4535-8 |location=New York |access-date=June 1, 2015}} and concepts like hybridization and electronegativity remain part of standard chemistry textbooks. While his Valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the color of organometallic complexes, and would later be eclipsed by the molecular orbital theory of Robert Mulliken, Valence Bond Theory still competes, in its modern form, with Molecular Orbital Theory and density functional theory (DFT) as a way of describing chemical phenomena.{{Cite journal |last1=Hoffmann |first1=Roald |last2=Shaik |first2=Sason |last3=Hiberty |first3=Philippe C. |year=2003 |title=A Conversation on VB vs MO Theory: A Never-Ending Rivalry? |journal=Acc Chem Res |volume=36 |issue=10 |pages=750–6 |doi=10.1021/ar030162a |pmid=14567708}} Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds.{{rp|80–81}} His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.

Francis Crick acknowledged Pauling as the "father of molecular biology".{{Cite news |date=March 1, 1986 |title=Pauling Honored by Scientists at Caltech Event |work=Los Angeles Times |agency=United Press International |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-03-01-me-13101-story.html |access-date=July 22, 2012}} His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a "molecular disease" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.

Pauling's 1951 publication with Robert B. Corey and H. R. Branson, "The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain," was a key early finding in the then newly emerging field of molecular biology. This publication was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the department of chemistry, Caltech, in 2017.{{Cite web |title=Citations for Chemical Breakthrough Awards 2017 Awardees |url=http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/CCB-2017_Awardees.php |access-date=March 12, 2018 |website=Division of the History of Chemistry}}{{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Corey |first2=R. B. |last3=Branson |first3=H. R. |author3-link=Herman Branson |year=1951 |title=The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=205–11 |bibcode=1951PNAS...37..205P |doi=10.1073/pnas.37.4.205 |pmc=1063337 |pmid=14816373 |doi-access=free}}

Oregon State University completed construction of the $77 million, {{convert|100,000|sqft|m2|adj=on}} Linus Pauling Science Center in the late 2000s, now housing the bulk of Oregon State's chemistry classrooms, labs, and instruments.{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Science Center {{!}} Department of Chemistry {{!}} Oregon State University |url=http://chemistry.oregonstate.edu/lpsc |access-date=November 10, 2016 |website=chemistry.oregonstate.edu}}

On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist Victor Stabin.{{Cite news |date=March 6, 2008 |title=Four Legends of American Science Now on U.S. Postage Stamps |work=United States Postal Service Postal News, Release No. 08-23 |url=https://about.usps.com/news/national-releases/2008/sr08_023.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://about.usps.com/news/national-releases/2008/sr08_023.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |title=OSU Celebrates Linus Pauling and Release of New U.S. Postal Service Stamp |url=http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102050729/http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/ |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |access-date=February 25, 2015 |website=Oregon State University – University Events}} His description reads: "A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease." The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included Gerty Cori, biochemist, Edwin Hubble, astronomer, and John Bardeen, physicist.

California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008, that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony took place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son Linus Jr. was asked to accept the honor in his place.{{Cite web |title=Governor & First Lady Participate in 2008 CA Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony |url=http://gov.ca.gov/news.php?id=11255 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602035158/http://gov.ca.gov/news.php?id=11255 |archive-date=June 2, 2015 |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=CA.gov}}

By proclamation of Gov. John Kitzhaber in the state of Oregon, February 28 has been named "Linus Pauling Day". The Linus Pauling Institute still exists, but moved in 1996 from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, where it is part of the Linus Pauling Science Center at Oregon State University.{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Institute |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/ |access-date=June 25, 2013 |publisher=Lpi.oregonstate.edu}}{{Cite news |last=Cole |first=Gail |date=October 14, 2011 |title=Linus Pauling Science Center opens at OSU |work=Corvallis Gazette-Times |url=http://www.gazettetimes.com/news/local/linus-pauling-science-center-opens-at-osu/article_4f5a422e-f63a-11e0-af55-001cc4c03286.html |access-date=June 2, 2015}}{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Science Center – A Moment to Celebrate |url=http://osufoundation.org/fundraisingpriorities/facilities/lpsc/landing.htm |access-date=June 2, 2015 |website=Oregon State University Foundation |archive-date=2015-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329075533/http://osufoundation.org/fundraisingpriorities/facilities/lpsc/landing.htm |url-status=dead }} The Valley Library Special Collections at Oregon State University contain the Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers, including digitized versions of Pauling's forty-six research notebooks.{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling Research Notebooks Online |url=http://naturalscience.com/ns/news/news40.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905114549/http://naturalscience.com/ns/news/news40.html |archive-date=September 5, 2015 |access-date=June 1, 2015 |website=Natural Science }}

In 1986, Caltech commemorated Linus Pauling with a symposium and lectureship.{{Cite book |last=Zewail |first=Ahmed |author-link=Ahmed Zewail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3Y_4BjUj7gC&pg=PR13 |title=The Chemical Bond Structure and Dynamics |date=1992 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-08-092669-8 |location=Burlington |access-date=June 1, 2015}} The Pauling Lecture series at Caltech began in 1989 with a lecture by Pauling himself. The Caltech Chemistry Department renamed room 22 of Gates Hall the Linus Pauling Lecture Hall, since Pauling spent so much time there.{{Cite journal |last=Baum |first=Rudy |date=December 11, 1989 |title=Caltech launches Linus Pauling lecture series |journal=Chemical & Engineering News |volume=67 |issue=50 |pages=18–19 |doi=10.1021/cen-v067n050.p018a}}

Other places named after Pauling include Pauling Street in Foothill Ranch, California;{{Cite news |last=Johnson |first=Greg |date=March 20, 1996 |title=Pauling Road Address Fits New Vitamin Factory to a 'C' |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-03-20-fi-49317-story.html |access-date=June 2, 2015}} Linus Pauling Drive in Hercules, California; Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at Soka University of America in Aliso Viejo, California;{{Cite news |last=Gottlieb |first=Jeff |date=August 19, 2001 |title=A New-View University |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-aug-19-me-35925-story.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}} Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon;{{Cite news |last=Woodward |first=Raju |date=February 29, 2012 |title=A son's tribute by Linus Pauling Jr. |work=Corvallis Gazette-Times |url=http://www.gazettetimes.com/news/local/a-son-s-tribute-by-linus-pauling-jr/article_9d0f7d7a-627f-11e1-84bb-001871e3ce6c.html |access-date=June 1, 2015}} and Pauling Field, a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon, where Pauling spent his youth.{{Cite news |date=October 19, 1988 |title=Scientist cites Condon years as influential |work=Register-Guard, Eugene, Oregon |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=19881019&id=8_JVAAAAIBAJ&pg=5043,4737376&hl=en |access-date=June 1, 2015}} There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston, Texas, named The Linus Pauling Quartet.{{Cite book |last=Heberlein |first=L. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zV2XWD8q5sC&pg=PA81 |title=The Rough guide to internet radio |date=2002 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-961-8 |location=London |access-date=June 1, 2015}}

The asteroid 4674 Pauling in the inner asteroid belt, discovered by Eleanor F. Helin, was named after Linus Pauling in 1991, on his 90th birthday.{{Cite book |last=Schmadel |first=Lutz D. |author-link=Lutz D. Schmadel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aeAg1X7afOoC&pg=PA380 |title=Dictionary of minor planet names |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-29718-2 |edition=6th |location=Berlin |access-date=June 1, 2015}}

Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel, is named after Pauling.{{Cite book |last=Moody |first=Glyn |author-link=Glyn Moody |url=https://archive.org/details/rebelcodeinside000mood/page/336 |title=Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution |publisher=Perseus Books Group |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7382-0670-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/rebelcodeinside000mood/page/336 336]}}

Nobel laureate Peter Agre has said that Linus Pauling inspired him.{{Cite journal |last=Agre |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Agre |date=December 10, 2013 |title=Fifty Years Ago: Linus Pauling and the Belated Nobel Peace Prize |url=https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/sites/default/files/fifty_years_ago-linus_pauling_and_the_belated_nobel_prize_science__diplomacy.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213004929/https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/letter-field/2013/fifty-years-ago-linus-pauling-and-belated-nobel-peace-prize |archive-date=February 13, 2014 |journal=Science & Diplomacy |volume=2 |issue=4}}{{cbignore}}

In 2010, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory named its distinguished postdoctoral program in his honor, as the Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.{{Cite web|url=https://www.pnnl.gov/projects/linus-pauling-distinguished-postdoctoral-fellowship|title=Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship | PNNL|website=www.pnnl.gov}}

Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including the following:{{Cite web |last=Center for Oral History |title=Linus C. Pauling |url=https://oh.sciencehistory.org/oral-histories/pauling-linus-c |website=Science History Institute}}{{Cite web |title=Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors and Medals |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/ |access-date=April 25, 2013 |website=Special Collections |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries}}

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• 1931 ACS Award in Pure Chemistry{{Cite web |title=ACS Award in Pure Chemistry |url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/funding-and-awards/awards/national/bytopic/acs-award-in-pure-chemistry.html |access-date=January 18, 2014 |publisher=American Chemical Society}}
• 1931 Irving Langmuir Award, American Chemical Society.
• 1933 Elected Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences{{cite web|title=Linus Pauling |department=Member Directory |publisher=National Academy of Sciences|url=https://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/51785.html}}
• 1936 Elected Member of the United States American Philosophical Society{{cite web|title=American Philosophical Society Member History |publisher=American Philosophical Society|url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=pauling&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced}}
• 1940 Alpha Chi Sigma, professional chemistry fraternity.{{Cite web |title=Alpha Chi Sigma Fraternity, Certificate of Membership |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1940h.1.html |access-date=May 27, 2015 |website=Special Collections & Archives Research Center. |publisher=Oregon State University Libraries}}
• 1941 Nichols Medal, New York Section, American Chemical Society.
• 1944 Elected Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences{{cite web|title=Linus Carl Pauling |date=February 9, 2023 |department=Member Directory |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|url=https://www.amacad.org/person/linus-carl-pauling}}
• 1946 Willard Gibbs Award, Chicago section of the American Chemical Society.
• 1947 Davy Medal, Royal Society.
• 1947 T. W. Richards Medal, Northeastern Section of the American Chemical Society.
• 1948 Presidential Medal for Merit by President Harry S. Truman of the United States.
• 1948 Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London (ForMemRS)
• 1951 Gilbert N. Lewis medal, California section of the American Chemical Society.
• 1952 Pasteur Medal, Biochemical Society of France.{{Cite web |title=Societe de Chimie Biologique, Louis Pasteur Medal. 1952 – Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors and Medals |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/awards/1952h.3.html |website=scarc.library.oregonstate.edu}}
• 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
• 1955 Addis Medal, National Nephrosis Foundation.
• 1955 John Phillips Memorial Award, American College of Physicians.
• 1956 Avogadro Medal, Italian Academy of Science.
• 1957 Paul Sabatier Medal.
• 1957 Pierre Fermat Medal in Mathematics (awarded for only the sixth time in three centuries).[https://web.archive.org/web/20120113045400/http://oregondigital.org/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/pawards&CISOPTR=33&CISOBOX=1&REC=2 Pauling's awards and medals] (includes image of Fermat medal).
• 1957 International Grotius Medal.
• 1959 Messenger Lectureship
• 1960 Fellow, Royal Society of Arts
• 1961 Humanist of the Year, American Humanist Association.
• 1961 Gandhi Peace Award by Promoting Enduring Peace.{{Cite web |title=Gandhi Peace Award |url=http://www.pepeace.org/gandhi-peace-award |access-date=April 26, 2013 |publisher=Promoting Enduring Peace}}
• 1962 Nobel Peace Prize.
• 1965 Medal, Academy of the Rumanian People's Republic.
• 1966 Linus Pauling Award.
• 1966 Silver Medal, Institute of France.
• 1966 Supreme Peace Sponsor, World Fellowship of Religion.
• 1967 Washington A. Roebling Medal, Mineralogical Society of America.
• 1972 Lenin Peace Prize.
• 1974 National Medal of Science by President Gerald R. Ford of the United States.
• 1978 Lomonosov Gold Medal, Presidium of the Academy of the USSR.
• 1979 Gold Medal Honoree, National Institute of Social Sciences.{{Cite web |title=Gold Medal Honorees |url=http://www.socialsciencesinstitute.org/gold-medal-honorees |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702153336/http://www.socialsciencesinstitute.org/gold-medal-honorees |archive-date=July 2, 2019 |access-date=July 2, 2019 |website=National Institute of Social Sciences}}
• 1979 NAS Award in Chemical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences.{{Cite web |title=NAS Award in Chemical Sciences |url=http://www.nasonline.org/programs/awards/chemical-sciences.html |access-date=June 2, 2015 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences}}
• 1979 Golden Plate Award, American Academy of Achievement{{Cite web |title=Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement |url=https://www.achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration |website=www.achievement.org |publisher=American Academy of Achievement}}
• 1981 John K. Lattimer Award, American Urological Association.
• 1984 Priestley Medal, American Chemical Society.
• 1984 Award for Chemistry, Arthur M. Sackler Foundation.
• 1986 Lavoisier Medal by Fondation de la Maison de la Chimie.
• 1987 Award in Chemical Education, American Chemical Society.
• 1989 Vannevar Bush Award, National Science Board.
• 1990 Richard C. Tolman Medal, American Chemical Society Southern California Section.
• 1992 Daisaku Ikeda Medal, Soka Gakkai International
• 2008 "American Scientists" U.S. postage stamp series, $0.41, for his sickle cell disease work.{{Cite web |title=OSU Celebrates Linus Pauling and Release of New U.S. Postal Service Stamp |url=http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102050729/http://oregonstate.edu/events/stamp/ |archive-date=November 2, 2013 |access-date=April 25, 2013 |website=Events |publisher=Oregon State University}}

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{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooksby=yes|viaf= 91892412}}

• {{Cite book |last1=Pauling |first1=Linus |title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry |last2=Wilson |first2=E. B. |publisher=Reprinted by Dover Publications |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-486-64871-2 |author-mask=2 |orig-year=Originally published in 1935}}
• {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1939 |author-mask=——}}
• {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory |publisher=Freeman |year=1947 |author-mask=——}}
• Greatly revised and expanded in 1947, 1953, and 1970. Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1988.
• {{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=Linus |title=The Architecture of Molecules |last2=Hayward |first2=Roger |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |publisher=Freeman |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7167-0158-3 |volume=51 |location=San Francisco |pages=977–84 |doi=10.1073/pnas.51.5.977 |pmc=300194 |pmid=16591181 |author-mask=2 |doi-access=free |issue=5|bibcode=1964PNAS...51..977P }}
• [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/bond/index.html Manuscript notes and typescripts (clear images)]
• {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=No more war! |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Co |year=1958 |isbn=978-1-124-11966-3 |author-mask=2}}
• {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu |publisher=Freeman |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-7167-0360-0 |author-mask=2}}
• {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=How to Live Longer and Feel Better |publisher=Avon |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-380-70289-3 |author-mask=2}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Cameron |first1=E. |author1-link=Ewan Cameron |title=Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C |last2=Pauling |first2=Linus |publisher=Camino |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-940159-21-1 |author-mask2=2}}
• {{Cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=Linus Pauling On Peace: A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival |publisher=Rising Star Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-933670-03-7 |author-mask=2}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Hoffer |first1=Abram |title=Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments |last2=Pauling |first2=Linus |publisher=CCNM Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-897025-11-6 |location=Toronto |author-mask2=2}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Ikeda |first1=Daisaku |title=A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue |last2=Pauling |first2=Linus |publisher=I. B. Tauris |others=Richard L. Gage (ed., trans.) |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84511-889-1 |location=London |author-mask2=2}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1927 |title=The Theoretical Prediction of the Physical Properties of Many-Electron Atoms and Ions. Mole Refraction, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, and Extension in Space |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=114 |issue=767 |pages=181–211 |bibcode=1927RSPSA.114..181P |doi=10.1098/rspa.1927.0035 |doi-access=free}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1929 |title=The Principles Determining the Structure of Complex Ionic Crystals |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=1010–1026 |doi=10.1021/ja01379a006|bibcode=1929JAChS..51.1010P }}
• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1931 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. I. Application of Results Obtained from the Quantum Mechanics and from a Theory of Paramagnetic Susceptibility to the Structure of Molecules |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=1367–1400 |doi=10.1021/ja01355a027|bibcode=1931JAChS..53.1367P }}
• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1931 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. II. The One-Electron Bond and the Three-Electron Bond |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=3225–3237 |doi=10.1021/ja01360a004|bibcode=1931JAChS..53.3225P }}
• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1932 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. III. The Transition from One Extreme Bond Type to Another |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=988–1003 |doi=10.1021/ja01342a022|bibcode=1932JAChS..54..988P }}
• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1932 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=3570–3582 |doi=10.1021/ja01348a011|bibcode=1932JAChS..54.3570P }}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Wheland |first2=G. W. |author-mask=2 |year=1933 |title=The Nature of the Chemical Bond. V. The Quantum-Mechanical Calculation of the Resonance Energy of Benzene and Naphthalene and the Hydrocarbon Free Radicals |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11409/1/PAUjcp33c.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11409/1/PAUjcp33c.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of Chemical Physics |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=362 |bibcode=1933JChPh...1..362P |doi=10.1063/1.1749304}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1935 |title=The Structure and Entropy of Ice and of Other Crystals with Some Randomness of Atomic Arrangement |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=57 |issue=12 |pages=2680–2684 |doi=10.1021/ja01315a102|bibcode=1935JAChS..57.2680P }}
• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1940 |title=A Theory of the Structure and Process of Formation of Antibodies* |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=62 |issue=10 |pages=2643–2657 |doi=10.1021/ja01867a018|bibcode=1940JAChS..62.2643P }}
• {{Cite journal |last=Pauling |first=L. |author-mask=2 |year=1947 |title=Atomic Radii and Interatomic Distances in Metals |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=542–553 |doi=10.1021/ja01195a024|bibcode=1947JAChS..69..542P }}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Itano |first2=H. A. |last3=Singer |first3=S. J. |author3-link=Seymour Jonathan Singer |last4=Wells |first4=I. C. |author-mask=2 |year=1949 |title=Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease |journal=Science |volume=110 |issue=2865 |pages=543–548 |bibcode=1949Sci...110..543P |doi=10.1126/science.110.2865.543 |pmid=15395398|s2cid=31674765 }}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Pauling |first1=L. |last2=Corey |first2=R. B. |last3=Branson |first3=H. R. |author3-link=Herman Branson |author-mask=2 |year=1951 |title=The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=205–11 |bibcode=1951PNAS...37..205P |doi=10.1073/pnas.37.4.205 |pmc=1063337 |pmid=14816373 |doi-access=free}}

• List of peace activists
• Niacin
• Nobel disease

{{reflist}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{Cite book |last=Hager |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Hager |url=https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingchem00hage |title=Linus Pauling and the Chemistry of Life |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-513972-3 |via=Internet Archive}}
• {{Cite book |last1=Marinacci |first1=Barbara |title=Linus Pauling on Peace |last2=Krishnamurthy |first2=Ramesh |publisher=Rising Star Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-933670-03-7}}
• {{Cite book |last=Serafini |first=Anthony |url=https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingmana00sera |title=Linus Pauling: A Man and His Science |date=1989 |publisher=Paragon House |isbn=978-1-55778-440-7 |via=Internet Archive}}

{{Refend}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{Cite book |last=Hargittai |first=István |title=Candid Science: Conversations with Famous Chemists |publisher=Imperial College Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-86094-151-1 |editor-last=Hargittai |editor-first=Magdolna |edition=Reprinted |location=London}}
• {{Cite book |title=Linus Pauling: In His Own Words: Selected Writings, Speeches, and Interviews |publisher=Simon & Schuster |others=Introduction by Linus Pauling |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-684-81387-5 |editor-last=Marinacci |editor-first=Barbara |location=New York}} [https://archive.org/details/linuspaulinginhi0000paul online]
• Pauling, Linus. Selected Scientific Papers Vol. II [https://archive.org/details/linus-pauling-selected-scientific-papers-vol-ii online]
• {{Cite book |last=Sturchio |first=Jeffrey L. |url=https://oh.sciencehistory.org/sites/default/files/pauling_l_0067_suppl.pdf |title=Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987 |date=April 6, 1987 |publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation |location=Philadelphia, PA}}

{{Refend}}

{{Refbegin}}

• {{Cite book |last=Coffey |first=Patrick |title=Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-532134-0}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Davenport |first=Derek A. |year=1996 |title=The Many Lives of Linus Pauling: A Review of Reviews |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=73 |issue=9 |pages=A210 |bibcode=1996JChEd..73A.210D |doi=10.1021/ed073pA210 |doi-access=free}}
• Gormley, Melinda. "The first ‘molecular disease’: a story of Linus Pauling, the intellectual patron." Endeavour 31.2 (2007): 71–77 [http://gerald.monard.free.fr/MC/m2bio/sickle-cell-anemia-1.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031085636/http://gerald.monard.free.fr/MC/m2bio/sickle-cell-anemia-1.pdf |date=2020-10-31 }}.
• Mead, Clifford. Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker (2008)
• Morgan, G. J. "Emile Zuckerkandl, Linus Pauling, and the molecular evolutionary clock, 1959–1965." Journal of the History of Biology (1998) 155–178.
• Nakamura, Jeanne, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. "Catalytic creativity: The case of Linus Pauling." American Psychologist 56.4 (2001): 337+.
• Strasser, Bruno J. "A world in one dimension: Linus Pauling, Francis Crick and the central dogma of molecular biology." History and philosophy of the life sciences (2006): 491–512 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bruno_Strasser/publication/5501485_A_world_in_one_dimension_Linus_Pauling_Francis_Crick_and_the_central_dogma_of_molecular_biology/links/00b4951e59db7402f4000000.pdf online].
• Strasser, Bruno J. "Linus Pauling's “molecular diseases”: Between history and memory." American journal of medical genetics 115.2 (2002): 83–93 [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.613.5672&rep=rep1&type=pdf online].
• White, Florence Meiman. Linus Pauling Scientist and Crusader (1980) [https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingscie00whit online]
• Zannos, Susan. Linus Pauling and the chemical bond (2004), 48pp [https://archive.org/details/linuspaulingchem0000zann online], for secondary schools

{{Refend}}

{{wikiquote}}

{{Commons|Linus C. Pauling}}

{{Scholia|author}}

• [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/digitalresources/pauling/ Linus Pauling Online] a Pauling portal created by Oregon State University Libraries
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20071014174033/http://oregonstate.edu/dept/Special_Collections/subpages/ahp/1995symposium/crick.html Crick, Francis, "The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology" (transcribed from video at the 1995 Oregon State University symposium)]
• [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/index.html The Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers at the Oregon State University Libraries]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20190719010423/http://www.paulingcatalogue.org/ The Pauling Catalogue]
• {{Cite web |last=Center for Oral History |title=Linus C. Pauling |url=https://oh.sciencehistory.org/oral-histories/pauling-linus-c |website=Science History Institute}}
• {{Cite book |last=Sturchio |first=Jeffrey L. |url=https://oh.sciencehistory.org/sites/default/files/pauling_l_0067_suppl.pdf |title=Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987 |date=April 6, 1987 |publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation |location=Philadelphia, PA}}
• [http://paulingblog.wordpress.com The Pauling Blog]
• [http://www.users.muohio.edu/shermalw/honors_2001_fall/honors_papers_2001/Lowrey_LPauling.htm Linus Pauling (1901–1994)]
• [http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/conversations/Pauling Berkeley Conversations With History interview]
• [http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/digitalresources/pauling/ Linus Pauling Centenary Exhibit]
• [http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html Linus Pauling from The Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165013/http://uudb.org/articles/linuspauling.html |date=2018-10-16 }}
• {{Cite web |title=It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia – Special Collections & Archives Research Center – Oregon State University |url=http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/pauling/blood/ |access-date=February 25, 2015 |website=Oregon State University Library}}
• [http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/ The Linus Pauling Institute] at Oregon State University
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621142646/http://charon.girinst.org/~zeke/test.bit.pdf Publications of Pauling]
• [https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/ The Linus Pauling Papers] – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine
• [http://www.opb.org/television/programs/oregonexperience/segment/linus-pauling/ Linus Pauling] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719010408/http://www.opb.org/television/programs/oregonexperience/segment/linus-pauling/ |date=July 19, 2019 }} Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting
• [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/5h73px42w Oral history interview with Linus C. Pauling] from [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/ Science History Institute Digital Collections]

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{{succession box

| title = Laureate of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry

| years = 1954

| before = Hermann Staudinger

| after = Vincent du Vigneaud

}}

{{succession box

| title = Laureate of the Nobel Peace Prize

| years = 1962

| before = Dag Hammarskjöld

| after = International Committee
of the Red Cross,
League of Red Cross Societies

}}

{{s-end}}

{{Linus Pauling}}

{{Nobel Peace Prize Laureates 1951–1975}}

{{Nobel Prize in Chemistry Laureates 1951–1975}}

{{1962 Nobel Prize winners}}

{{Time Persons of the Year 1951–1975}}

{{Presidents of the American Chemical Society}}

{{U.S. anti-nuclear}}

{{Gandhi Peace Award laureates}}

{{1954 Nobel Prize winners}}

{{World Constitutional Convention call signatories}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pauling, Linus}}

Category:1901 births

Category:1994 deaths

Category:20th-century American biochemists

Category:20th-century atheists

Category:American anti-war activists

Category:American anti–nuclear weapons activists

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Category:History of genetics

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Category:National Medal of Science laureates

Category:Nobel laureates in Chemistry

Category:Nobel laureates with multiple Nobel awards

Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates

Category:Oregon State University faculty

Category:Orthomolecular medicine advocates

Category:Presidents of the American Chemical Society

Category:People from Condon, Oregon

Category:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America editors

Category:Recipients of the Lenin Peace Prize

Category:Recipients of the Lomonosov Gold Medal

Category:American theoretical chemists

Category:Time Person of the Year

Category:Vannevar Bush Award recipients

Category:Washington High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni

Category:World Constitutional Convention call signatories

Category:Writers from Portland, Oregon

Category:Members of Phi Kappa Phi

Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts

Category:Delta Upsilon members