List of life sciences#New

{{redirect2|Life Sciences|Bioscience|the scientific journals|Life Sciences (journal){{!}}Life Sciences (journal)|and|BioScience{{!}}BioScience}}

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This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings. This science is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines.

Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro scale (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry), while others focus on larger scales (e.g., cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind{{spaced ndash}}neuroscience. Life sciences discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, they have provided information on certain diseases which have overall aided in the understanding of human health.{{Cite web |title=Why Study the Life Sciences? |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/why-study-life-sciences |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs |date=26 June 2015 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924000437/https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/why-study-life-sciences |url-status=live }}

Basic life science branches

Biology – scientific study of life{{cite book | last1 = Urry | first1 = Lisa | last2 = Cain | first2 = Michael | last3 = Wasserman | first3 = Steven | last4 = Minorsky | first4 = Peter | last5 = Reece | first5 = Jane | chapter = Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry | title = Campbell Biology | publisher = Pearson | edition = 11th | date = 2017 | location = New York, NY | pages = 2–26 | isbn = 978-0134093413}}{{cite book | last1 = Hillis | first1 = David M. | last2 = Heller | first2 = H. Craig | last3 = Hacker | first3 = Sally D. | last4 = Laskowski | first4 = Marta J. | last5 = Sadava | first5 = David E. | chapter = Studying life | title = Life: The Science of Biology | publisher = W. H. Freeman | edition = 12th | date = 2020 | isbn = 978-1319017644}}{{cite book | last1 = Freeman| first1 = Scott | last2 = Quillin | first2 = Kim | last3 = Allison | first3 = Lizabeth | last4 = Black | first4 = Michael | last5 = Podgorski | first5 = Greg | last6 = Taylor | first6 = Emily | last7 = Carmichael | first7 = Jeff | chapter = Biology and the three of life | title = Biological Science | publisher = Pearson | edition = 6th | date = 2017 | location = Hoboken, NJ | pages = 1–18 | isbn = 978-0321976499}}
Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms{{Cite web|title=anatomy {{!}} Definition, History, & Biology|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/anatomy|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=8 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408004804/https://www.britannica.com/science/anatomy|url-status=live}}
Histology – the study of tissues
Neuroscience – the study of the nervous system
Astrobiology – the study of the formation and presence of life in the universe{{Cite web|title=Astrobiology {{!}} science|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/astrobiology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416185026/https://www.britannica.com/science/astrobiology|url-status=live}}
Biotechnology – study of combination of both the living organism and technology{{Cite web|title=biotechnology {{!}} Definition, Examples, & Applications|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/biotechnology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505235635/https://www.britannica.com/technology/biotechnology|url-status=live}}
Biochemistry – the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually focused on the cellular level{{Cite web|title=biochemistry {{!}} Definition, History, Examples, Importance, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/biochemistry|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=4 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604081852/https://www.britannica.com/science/biochemistry|url-status=live}}
Quantum biology – the study of quantum phenomena in organisms
Bioinformatics – developing of methods or software tools for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data to generate useful biological knowledge{{Cite web|title=Bioinformatics {{!}} science|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/bioinformatics|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414103621/https://www.britannica.com/science/bioinformatics|url-status=live}}
Biophysics – study of biological processes by applying the theories and methods that have been traditionally used in the physical sciences{{Cite web|title=Biophysics {{!}} science|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/biophysics|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=22 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422181955/https://www.britannica.com/science/biophysics|url-status=live}}
Biomechanics – the study of the mechanics of living beings{{Cite web|title=Biomechanics {{!}} science|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/biomechanics-science|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803040237/https://www.britannica.com/science/biomechanics-science|url-status=live}}
Botany – study of plants{{Cite web|title=botany {{!}} Definition, History, Branches, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/botany|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=31 May 2020|archive-date=30 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530041918/https://www.britannica.com/science/botany|url-status=live}}
Agrostology – the study of grasses and grass-like species
Phycology – the study of algae{{Cite web|title=Phycology {{!}} biology|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/phycology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=1 September 2020|archive-date=20 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020234804/https://www.britannica.com/science/phycology|url-status=live}}
Cell biology (cytology) – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell{{Cite web|title=Cytology {{!}} biology|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/cytology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=31 May 2020|archive-date=8 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608161611/https://www.britannica.com/science/cytology|url-status=live}}
Developmental biology – the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure
Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment{{Cite web|title=Ecology|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ecology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=19 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519140545/https://www.britannica.com/science/ecology|url-status=live}}
Enzymology – study of enzymes
Evolutionary biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time{{Cite web|title=Evolution – The science of evolution|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/evolution-scientific-theory|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=31 May 2020|archive-date=28 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528114000/https://www.britannica.com/science/evolution-scientific-theory|url-status=live}}
Evolutionary developmental biology – the study of the evolution of development including its molecular control
Genetics – the study of genes and heredity
Immunology – the study of the immune system{{Cite web|title=Immunology {{!}} medicine|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/immunology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=2 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602162653/https://www.britannica.com/science/immunology|url-status=live}}
Marine biology – the study of ocean organisms
Biological oceanography – the study of life in the oceans and their interaction with the environment
Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living organisms
Aerobiology – study of the movement and transportation of microorganisms in the air{{Cite web|title=Aerobiology {{!}} Definition, History, & Research|

url=https://www.rsb.org.uk/biologist-features/spotlight-on-aerobiology|website=The Biologist|language=en|access-date=4 March 2024|archive-date=10 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410014002/https://www.rsb.org.uk/biologist-features/spotlight-on-aerobiology|url-status=live}}

Bacteriology – study of bacteria
Virology – study of viruses and virus-like agents
Molecular biology – the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry, genetics, and microbiology
Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macro-molecules
Mycology – the study of fungi
Paleontology – the study of prehistoric organisms
Parasitology – the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them
Pathology – study of the causes and effects of disease or injury
Human biology – the biological study of human beings
Pharmacology – study of drug action
Biological (or physical) anthropology – the study of humans, non-human primates, and hominids
Biolinguistics – the study of the biology and evolution of language
Physiology – the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms
Population biology – the study of groups of conspecific organisms
Population dynamics – the study of short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. Population dynamics deals with the way populations are affected by birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration, and studies topics such as ageing populations or population decline.
Synthetic biology – the design and construction of new biological entities such as enzymes, genetic circuits and cells, or the redesign of existing biological systems
Systems biology – the study of the integration and dependencies of various components within a biological system, with particular focus upon the role of metabolic pathways and cell-signaling strategies in physiology
Theoretical biology – use of abstractions and mathematical models to study biological phenomena
Toxicology – the study of poisons
Zoology – the study of (generally non-human) animals
Ethology – the study of animal behavior{{Cite web |title=Ethology {{!}} biology |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ethology |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519085510/https://www.britannica.com/science/ethology |archive-date=19 May 2020 |access-date=31 May 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}

Applied life science branches and derived concepts

Agriculture – science and practice of cultivating plants and livestock
Agronomy – science of cultivating plants for resources
Biocomputers – systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are used to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biological computing has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology.{{Cite web|title=Tiny Biocomputers Move Closer to Reality|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-circuit-in-every-cell/|last=Wayne|first=Greg|date=1 December 2011|website=Scientific American|access-date=10 May 2020|archive-date=13 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313054309/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-circuit-in-every-cell/|url-status=live}}
Biocontrol – bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms.{{cite book |author=Flint, Maria Louise |author2=Dreistadt, Steve H.|editor=Clark, Jack K.|title=Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control|publisher=University of California Press|date=1998|isbn=9780520218017|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBJvpMqcV9UC}}
Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
Bioelectronics – field at the convergence of electronics and biological sciences. The electrical state of biological matter significantly affects its structure and function, compare for instance the membrane potential, the signal transduction by neurons, the isoelectric point (IEP) and so on. Micro- and nano-electronic components and devices have increasingly been combined with biological systems like medical implants, biosensors, lab-on-a-chip devices etc. causing the emergence of this new scientific field.{{cite journal |author1=M. Birkholz |author2=A. Mai |author3=C. Wenger |author4=C. Meliani |author5=R. Scholz | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282052331 | title = Technology modules from micro- and nano-electronics for the life sciences | journal = WIREs Nanomed. Nanobiotech. | year = 2016 | volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=355–377 | doi = 10.1002/wnan.1367 |pmid=26391194 }}
Biomaterials – any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
Biomedical science – healthcare science, also known as biomedical science, is a set of applied sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology of use in healthcare or public health. Such disciplines as medical microbiology, clinical virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology and pathophysiology are medical sciences.
Biomonitoring – measurement of the body burden of toxic chemical compounds, elements, or their metabolites, in biological substances.{{cite web

|url=http://www.clu-in.org/download/contaminantfocus/pcb/third-report.pdf

|title=Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals

|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – National Center for Environmental Health

|access-date=9 August 2009

|archive-date=27 July 2011

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727191422/http://www.clu-in.org/download/contaminantfocus/pcb/third-report.pdf

|url-status=dead

}}{{cite web

|url = http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_acc/bin.asp?CID=257&DID=1584&DOC=FILE.PDF

|title = What is Biomonitoring?

|publisher = American Chemistry Council

|access-date = 11 January 2009

|url-status = dead

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081123051537/http://www.americanchemistry.com/s_acc/bin.asp?CID=257&DID=1584&DOC=FILE.PDF

|archive-date = 23 November 2008

}} Often, these measurements are done in blood and urine.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.01.024 |title=Human biomonitoring: State of the art |date=2007 |last1=Angerer |first1=Jürgen |last2=Ewers |first2=Ulrich |last3=Wilhelm |first3=Michael |journal=International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health |volume=210 |issue=3–4 |pages=201–28 |pmid=17376741|bibcode=2007IJHEH.210..201A }}

Biopolymer – polymers produced by living organisms; in other words, they are polymeric biomolecules. Since they are polymers, biopolymers contain monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides (RNA and DNA), which are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotide monomers; polypeptides, which are short polymers of amino acids; and polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures.{{Cite book|last1=Mohanty|first1=Amar K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwXugfY2oc4C|title=Natural Fibers, Biopolymers, and Biocomposites|last2=Misra|first2=Manjusri|last3=Drzal|first3=Lawrence T.|date=8 April 2005|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-203-50820-6|language=en|access-date=15 November 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416222232/https://books.google.com/books?id=AwXugfY2oc4C|url-status=live}}Chandra, R., and Rustgi, R., "Biodegradable Polymers", Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 23, p. 1273 (1998)Kumar, A., et al., "Smart Polymers: Physical Forms & Bioengineering Applications", Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 32, p.1205 (2007)
Biotechnology – manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology{{Cite web|title=Biotechnology: A Life Sciences Online Resource Guide {{!}} UIC|url=https://healthinformatics.uic.edu/blog/biotechnology-a-life-sciences-online-resource-guide/|date=19 December 2014|website=Health Informatics Online Masters {{!}} Nursing & Medical Degrees|language=en-US|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803044700/https://healthinformatics.uic.edu/blog/biotechnology-a-life-sciences-online-resource-guide/|url-status=live}}
Conservation biology – the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.{{Cite web|title=LibGuides: Life Sciences: Conservation Biology/Ecology|url=https://libguides.asu.edu/c.php?g=263766&p=1765361|last=Tanner|first=Rene|website=libguides.asu.edu|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401133425/https://libguides.asu.edu/c.php?g=263766&p=1765361|url-status=live}}
Environmental health – multidisciplinary field concerned with environmental epidemiology, toxicology, and exposure science.
Fermentation technology – study of use of microorganisms for industrial manufacturing of various products like vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, beer, wine, etc.{{Cite web|title=fermentation {{!}} Definition, Process, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/fermentation|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523103145/https://www.britannica.com/science/fermentation|url-status=live}}
Food science – applied science devoted to the study of food. Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce and conserve these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, study of the effects of food on the human body, sensory evaluation of products using panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological, physical (texture and rheology) and chemical testing.{{cite web | url=http://in.reuters.com/article/nestle-singapore-idINL2N0KW0C720140122 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222194644/http://in.reuters.com/article/nestle-singapore-idINL2N0KW0C720140122 | url-status=dead | archive-date=22 December 2015 | title=Nestle teams up with Singapore for food science research | work=Reuters | date=22 January 2014 | access-date=9 February 2014 | author=Geller, Martinne}}{{cite web | url=http://www.euronews.com/2013/12/09/food-science-to-fight-obesity/ | title=Food science to fight obesity | work=Euronews | date=9 December 2013 | access-date=9 February 2014 | archive-date=4 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200104000638/https://www.euronews.com/2013/12/09/food-science-to-fight-obesity | url-status=dead }}{{cite journal | url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2013/11/a-new-kind-of-food-science/ | title=A New Kind of Food Science: How IBM Is Using Big Data to Invent Creative Recipes | journal=Wired | date=16 November 2013 | access-date=9 February 2014 | author=Bhatia, Atish | archive-date=9 February 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209132454/http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2013/11/a-new-kind-of-food-science/ | url-status=live }}
Genomics – application of recombinant DNA, DNA sequencing methods, and bioinformatics to sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of genomes (the complete set of DNA within a single cell of an organism).{{cite web|url=http://www.genome.gov/19016904|title=A Brief Guide to Genomics|last=National Human Genome Research Institute|date=8 November 2010|work=Genome.gov|access-date=3 December 2011|archive-date=28 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728012517/https://www.genome.gov/19016904/|url-status=live}}{{Cite book|last=Klug|first=William S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tQZkmAEACAAJ|title=Concepts of Genetics|date=2012|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-321-79577-9|language=en|access-date=15 November 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416230426/https://books.google.com/books?id=tQZkmAEACAAJ|url-status=live}} The field includes efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome.{{Cite book|title=Bioinformatics and functional genomics|last=Pevsner|first=Jonathan|date=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=9780470085851|edition=2nd|location=Hoboken, N.J|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/bioinformaticsfu00pevs_0}} In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology or genetics and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.{{cite web|url=http://www.genome.gov/19016904|title=FAQ About Genetic and Genomic Science|last=National Human Genome Research Institute|date=8 November 2010|work=Genome.gov|access-date=3 December 2011|archive-date=28 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728012517/https://www.genome.gov/19016904/|url-status=live}}{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Genomics|encyclopedia=Genetics|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|last=Culver|first=Kenneth W.|date=8 November 2002|series=Macmillan Science Library|isbn=0028656067|author2=Mark A. Labow |editor=Richard Robinson |url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/genetics0000unse}}
Health sciences – sciences which focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. These two subject matters relate to multiple academic disciplines, both STEM disciplines, as well as emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research), and are both relevant to current health science knowledge.
Medical devices – A medical device is an instrument, apparatus, implant, in vitro reagent, or similar or related article that is used to diagnose, prevent, or treat disease or other conditions, and does not achieve its purposes through chemical action within or on the body (which would make it a drug).{{Cite journal |last=Health |first=Center for Devices and Radiological |date=16 December 2019 |title=How to Determine if Your Product is a Medical Device |url=https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/classify-your-medical-device/how-determine-if-your-product-medical-device |url-status=live |journal=FDA |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606200847/https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/classify-your-medical-device/how-determine-if-your-product-medical-device |archive-date=6 June 2020 |access-date=30 May 2020}} Whereas medicinal products (also called pharmaceuticals) achieve their principal action by pharmacological, metabolic or immunological means, medical devices act by other means like physical, mechanical, or thermal means.
Medical imaging – the technique and process used to create images of the human body (or parts and function thereof) for clinical or physiological research purposes{{Cite book |last1=Sun |first1=Changming |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJg9BQAAQBAJ&q=medical+image+life+sciences&pg=PA195 |title=Signal and Image Analysis for Biomedical and Life Sciences |last2=Bednarz |first2=Tomasz |last3=Pham |first3=Tuan D. |last4=Vallotton |first4=Pascal |last5=Wang |first5=Dadong |date=7 November 2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-10984-8 |language=en |access-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416215210/https://books.google.com/books?id=UJg9BQAAQBAJ&q=medical+image+life+sciences&pg=PA195 |archive-date=16 April 2021 |url-status=live}}
Immunotherapy – the "treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response".{{cite web|title=Definition: Immunotherapies|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/immunotherapies?qsrc=2446|work=Dictionary.com|access-date=10 May 2020|archive-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027075708/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/immunotherapies?qsrc=2446|url-status=live}} Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as suppression immunotherapies.{{Cite web|title=Immunotherapy {{!}} medicine|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/immunotherapy|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=31 May 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803075025/https://www.britannica.com/science/immunotherapy|url-status=live}}
Kinesiology – scientific study of human movement. Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, addresses physiological, mechanical, and psychological mechanisms. Applications of kinesiology to human health include: biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise. Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments.{{cite web|url=http://www.cka.ca/kinesiology.php |title=CKA – Canadian Kinesiology Alliance – Alliance Canadienne de Kinésiologie |publisher=Cka.ca |access-date=25 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318005051/http://www.cka.ca/kinesiology.php |archive-date=18 March 2009 }} Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.{{Cite book|last1=Rosenhahn|first1=Bodo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=929HmKbNaCAC&q=Bodo+Rosenhahn%2C+Reinhard+Klette+and+Dimitris+Metaxas+%28eds.%29.+Human+Motion+-+Understanding%2C+Modelling%2C+Capture+and+Animation&pg=PA318|title=Human Motion: Understanding, Modelling, Capture, and Animation|last2=Klette|first2=Reinhard|last3=Metaxas|first3=Dimitris|date=2008|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-6692-4|language=en|access-date=15 November 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416231250/https://books.google.com/books?id=929HmKbNaCAC&q=Bodo+Rosenhahn%2C+Reinhard+Klette+and+Dimitris+Metaxas+%28eds.%29.+Human+Motion+-+Understanding%2C+Modelling%2C+Capture+and+Animation&pg=PA318|url-status=live}}File:Structural MRI animation.ogv MRI of the head, with aliasing artifacts]]
Optogenetics – a neuromodulation technique employed in neuroscience that uses a combination of techniques from optics and genetics to control and monitor the activities of individual neurons in living tissue—even within freely-moving animals—and to precisely measure the effects of those manipulations in real-time.{{cite journal|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3863-06.2006|title=Next-Generation Optical Technologies for Illuminating Genetically Targeted Brain Circuits|date=2006|last1=Deisseroth|first1=K.|last2=Feng|first2=G.|last3=Majewska|first3=A. K.|last4=Miesenbock|first4=G.|last5=Ting|first5=A.|last6=Schnitzer|first6=M. J.|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=26|issue=41|pages=10380–6|pmid=17035522|pmc=2820367}} The key reagents used in optogenetics are light-sensitive proteins. Spatially-precise neuronal control is achieved using optogenetic actuators like channelrhodopsin, halorhodopsin, and archaerhodopsin, while temporally-precise recordings can be made with the help of optogenetic sensors like Clomeleon, Mermaid, and SuperClomeleon.{{Cite journal

| last1 = Mancuso | first1 = J. J.

| last2 = Kim | first2 = J.

| last3 = Lee | first3 = S.

| last4 = Tsuda | first4 = S.

| last5 = Chow | first5 = N. B. H.

| last6 = Augustine | first6 = G. J.

| doi = 10.1113/expphysiol.2010.055731

| title = Optogenetic probing of functional brain circuitry

| journal = Experimental Physiology

| volume = 96

| issue = 1

| pages = 26–33

| year = 2010

| pmid = 21056968

| s2cid = 206367530

| doi-access = free

}}

Pharmacogenomics – field of science and technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.Ermak G., Modern Science & Future Medicine (second edition), 164 p., 2013 Pharmacogenomics (a portmanteau of pharmacology and genomics) deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity.{{cite journal | author = Wang L | title = Pharmacogenomics: a systems approach | journal = Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–22 | date = 2010 | pmid = 20836007 | doi = 10.1002/wsbm.42 | pmc=3894835}}
Pharmacology – branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action,{{cite journal |vauthors=Vallance P, Smart TG |title=The future of pharmacology |journal=British Journal of Pharmacology |volume=147 Suppl 1 |issue= S1|pages=S304–7 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16402118 |pmc=1760753 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706454 }} where a drug can be broadly defined as any human-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals.
Proteomics – the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions.{{cite journal |vauthors=Anderson NL, Anderson NG |title=Proteome and proteomics: new technologies, new concepts, and new words |journal=Electrophoresis |volume=19 |issue=11 |pages=1853–61 |date=1998 |pmid=9740045 |doi=10.1002/elps.1150191103|s2cid=28933890 }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Blackstock WP, Weir MP |title=Proteomics: quantitative and physical mapping of cellular proteins |journal=Trends Biotechnol. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=121–7 |date=1999 |pmid=10189717| doi = 10.1016/S0167-7799(98)01245-1}} Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins,{{cite journal |author1=Marc R. Wilkins |author2=Christian Pasquali |author3=Ron D. Appel |author4=Keli Ou |author5=Olivier Golaz |author6=Jean-Charles Sanchez |author7=Jun X. Yan |author8=Andrew. A. Gooley |author9=Graham Hughes |author10=Ian Humphery-Smith |author11=Keith L. Williams |author12=Denis F. Hochstrasser |title=From Proteins to Proteomes: Large Scale Protein Identification by Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis and Arnino Acid Analysis|journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=61–65 |date=1996 |pmid=9636313 |doi=10.1038/nbt0196-61|s2cid=25320181 }} produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes.

List of life sciences#New

Basic life science branches

Applied life science branches and derived concepts

See also

References

Further reading