Manchu literature
{{Short description|Literature written in the Manchu language}}
Manchu became a literary language after the creation of the Manchu script in 1599. Romance of the Three Kingdoms was translated by Dahai.{{cite book|author=Claudine Salmon|title=Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (17th-20th Centuries)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdT3AwAAQBAJ&q=dahai+translated+classics&pg=PA15|date=13 November 2013|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4414-32-6|pages=15–}} Dahai translated Wanbao quanshu 萬寶全書.{{cite book|author=Richard J. Smith|title=The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RhmaCgAAQBAJ&q=dahai+translated+classics&pg=PA58|date=23 October 2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-2194-9|pages=58–}}
Hong Taiji sponsored the translations of many Chinese language histories and classics in his newly declared Qing dynasty.
The majority of literary works in Manchu during the Qing dynasty consisted of officially sanctioned translations of Chinese Confucian classics and political works, and later translations of Chinese novels and texts on medicine, history, religion.Norman 2003, pp. 485-6. There were few Manchu archetypal literary works.[https://books.google.com/books?id=93onvmXF1r0C&pg=PA211 ed. Idema 2007], p. 211.
The German sinologist Eric Hauer argued that the Manchu translations of Chinese classics and fiction were done by experts familiar with their original meaning and with how best to express it in Manchu. Because Manchu is easy to learn, these translations enable the student to use the Manchu versions of the classics to verify the meaning of the Chinese text, for instance, the Manchu translation of the Peiwen yunfu or the language of difficult Chinese novels, such as Jin Ping Mei.{{sfnb|Hauer|1930|p=162-163}} Most original material produced in Manchu were histories and documentary texts relating to military and foreign affairs on the northern frontiers which were handled by the Lifan Yuan, such as campaigns against the Dzungars.
Many Chinese medical texts were translated into Manchu under the Qianlong Emperor.Hanson 2003, p. 114.
List of works
=Works translated into Manchu=
==Classics and Histories==
- History of Liao 遼史 {{MongolUnicode|ᡩᠠᡳᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ {{zwj}}ᡳ
ᠰᡠᡩᡠᡵᡳ}} Wylie: Dailiyoo gurun i suduri, Möllendorff: Dailiyoo gurun i suduri. - History of Jin 金史 {{MongolUnicode|ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ {{zwj}}ᡳ
ᠰᡠᡩᡠᡵᡳ}} Wylie: Aisin gurun i suduri, Möllendorff: Aisin gurun i suduri. - History of Yuan 元史 {{MongolUnicode|ᠶᡠᠸᠠᠨ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ {{zwj}}ᡳ
ᠰᡠᡩᡠᡵᡳ}} Wylie: Yuwan gurun i suduri, Möllendorff: Yuwan gurun i suduri. - Spring and Autumn Annals 春秋 {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᡳᠶᡝᠩᠨᡳᠶᡝᡵᡳ
ᠪᠣᠯᠣᡵᡳ {{zwj}}ᡳ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ}} Wylie: Niengniyeri polori i pitghe, Möllendorff: Niyengniyeri bolori i bithe. - Four Books 四書 were translated in 1683 into Manchu as {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠨ {{zwj}}ᡳ
ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠ
ᡳᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳᡩᠠᡵᡳ
ᡤᡳᠶᠠᠩᠨᠠᡥᠠ
ᠰᡟ
ᡧᡠ}} Wylie: Han i araha inenggidari giyangnaha sze shu, Möllendorff: Han i araha Inenggidari giyangnaha sy šu, Translation: The Four books with the daily readings. - General History of China 通鑒綱目 or 通鑑綱目 {{MongolUnicode|ᡨᡠᠩ
ᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ
ᡬᠠᠩ
ᠮᡠ}} Wylie: Tung giyan g'ang mu, Möllendorff: Tung giyan g'ang mu - The Art of War 孫子兵法 {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠᡳ
ᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠ
ᠪᡝ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᡵᡝᠩᡤᡝ}} Wylie: Tchauhai paita pe gisurengge, Möllendorff: Coohai baita be gisurengge, Discourse on the art of War - Book of History 書經 was translated in 1760 as {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠨ
ᡳ
ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠ
ᡠᠪᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠮᠪᡠᡥᠠ
ᡩᠠᠰᠠᠨ
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ᠨᠣᠮᡠᠨ}} Wylie: Han i araha upaliyampuha dasan i nomun, Möllendorff: Han i araha ubaliyambuha dasan i nomun. 御製繙譯書經 - Book of Odes 詩經 {{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠨ
ᡳ
ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠ
ᡠᠪᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠮᠪᡠᡥᠠ
ᡳᡵᡤᡝᠪᡠᠨ
ᡳ
ᠨᠣᠮᡠᠨ}} Wylie: Han i araha upaliyampuha irgepun i nomun, Möllendorff: Han i araha ubaliyambuha irgebun i nomun. - Three Character Classic 三字經 was translated in 1796 as {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ
ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ
ᡳ
ᡴᠠᠮᠴᡳᠮᡝ
ᠰᡠᡥᡝ
ᠰᠠᠨ
ᡯ
ᡤᡳᠩ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ}} Wylie: Manchu nikan ghergen i kamtsime sughe San tsz' ging pitghe, Möllendorff: Manju nikan hergen-i kamcime suhe San ze ging ni bithe, Translation: The three character classic, in Manchu and Chinese.
==Military manuals==
The first Manchu translations of Chinese works were the Liu-t'ao 六韜, Su-shu 素書, and San-lueh 三略- all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic, like Sun-Tzu's work The Art of War.{{cite book|title=Early China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQUOAQAAMAAJ&q=Sun-tzu+and+other+military+texts.+From+the+early+17th+century+the+Manchus+were+deeply+interested+in+Chinese+military+science,+as+shown+by+the+fact+that+such+texts+as+San-lueh,+Su-shu+A+and+Liu-t%27ao+were+among+the+first+Chinese+books+ever+translated+into+Manchu|year=1975|publisher=Society for the Study of Early China|page=53}}{{Cite journal |last=Durrant |first=Stephen |date=1977 |title=Manchu Translations of Chou Dynasty Texts |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23351361 |journal=Early China |volume=3 |pages=52–54 |doi=10.1017/S0362502800006623 |jstor=23351361 |issn=0362-5028}} The military related texts which were translated into Manchu from Chinese were translated by Dahai.{{cite book|author=Sin-wai Chan|title=A Chronology of Translation in China and the West: From the Legendary Period to 2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKUG4HbPV0EC&q=dahai+translated+military+texts&pg=PA60|year=2009|publisher=Chinese University Press|isbn=978-962-996-355-2|pages=60–61}} Manchu translations of Chinese texts included the Ming penal code and military texts were performed by Dahai.{{cite book|author=Peter C Perdue|title=China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&q=dahai+translated+military+texts&pg=PA122|date=30 June 2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-04202-5|pages=122–}} These translations were requested of Dahai by Nurhaci.{{cite book|last=Wakeman, Jr.|first=Frederic|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&q=dahai+translated+military+texts&pg=PA44|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=44–}} The military text Wu-tzu was translated into Manchu along with Sun-Tzu's work The Art of War.{{cite book|title=Early China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uBtYAAAAMAAJ&q=dahai+translated+military+texts|year=1977|publisher=Society for the Study of Early China|page=53}} Chinese history, Chinese law, and Chinese military theory classical texts were translated into Manchu during the rule of Hong Taiji in Mukden with Manchus placing significance upon military and governance related Chinese texts.{{cite book|author=Claudine Salmon|title=Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (17th-20th Centuries)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdT3AwAAQBAJ&q=dahai+translated+military+texts&pg=PA94|date=13 November 2013|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4414-32-6|pages=94–}} A Manchu translation was made of the military themed Chinese novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.{{cite book|title=Cultural Hybridity in Manchu Bannermen Tales (zidishu).|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xq51ko-eXlEC&q=dahai+translated+military+texts&pg=PA25|year=2007|isbn=978-0-549-44084-0|pages=25–}}{{Cite web | last=West | first=Andrew | author-link=Andrew West (linguist) | title=The Textual History of Sanguo Yanyi: The Manchu Translation | url=http://www.babelstone.co.uk/SanguoYanyi/TextualHistory/Manchu.html | access-date=11 October 2016 }} Chinese literature, military theory and legal texts were translated into Manchu by Dahai and Erdeni.{{cite book|author=Arthur W. Hummel|title=Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644-1912|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dahai+translated+military+texts|year=1991|publisher=SMC publ.|isbn=978-957-638-066-2|page=vi}} The translations were ordered in 1629.{{cite book |author=Shou-p'ing Wu Ko |title=Translation (by A. Wylie) of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language (by Woo Kĭh Show-ping, revised and ed. by Ching Ming-yuen Pei-ho) with intr. notes on Manchu literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdAOAAAAQAAJ |year=1855}}{{rp|xxxvi}}{{cite book|title=Translation of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with introductory notes on Manchu Literature: (translated by A. Wylie.)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6k-AAAAcAAJ&q=Before+1629+received+the+imperial+command+to+translate+into+Manchu+the+Statistics+of+the+Ming+dynasty+Military+Code+Three+Outlines+of+Military+Tactics+which+work+was+completed+in+1631+Six+Packets+of+Military+rules&pg=PR36|year=1855|publisher=Mission Press|pages=xxxvi–}} The translation of the military texts San-lüeh, Su-shu, and the Ta Ming hui-tien (the Ming law) done by Dahai was ordered by Nurhaci.{{cite ECCP|title=Dahai}} While it was mainly administrative and ethical guidance which made up most of San-lüeh and Su Shu, military science was indeed found in the Liu-t'ao and Chinese military manuals were eagerly translated by the Manchus and the Manchus were also attracted to the military content in Romance of the Three Kingdoms which is why it was translated.{{Cite journal |last=Durrant |first=Stephen |date=1979 |title=Sino-Manchu Translations at the Mukden Court |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/601450 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=653–661 |doi=10.2307/601450 |jstor=601450 |issn=0003-0279}} The Art of War was translated into Manchu as {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠣᠣᡥᠠᡳ
ᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠ
ᠪᡝ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᡵᡝᠩᡤᡝ}} Wylie: Tchauhai paita be gisurengge,{{rp|39}}http://library.umac.mo/ebooks/b31043252.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903220030/http://library.umac.mo/ebooks/b31043252.pdf |date=2014-09-03 }} {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}} Möllendorff: Coohai baita de gisurengge, Discourse on the art of War.{{cite book|author=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North China Branch, Shanghai|title=Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVkDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA40 |year=1890|publisher=Kelly & Walsh.|pages=40–}} Another later Manchu translation was made by Aisin Gioro Qiying.http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp178_art_of_war.pdf p. 82
==Novels==
- Jin Ping Mei 金瓶梅 {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡳᠨ
ᡦᡳᠩ
ᠮᡝᡳ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ}} Wylie: Gin p'ing mei pitghe, Möllendorff: Gin ping mei bithe - The Carnal Prayer Mat 肉蒲團 {{MongolUnicode|ᡰᡝᠣ
ᡦᡠ
ᡨᡠᠸᠠᠨ
ᡳ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ}} Wylie: Jeo p'u tuwan i pitghe, Möllendorff: žeo pu tuwan i bithe - Romance of the Three Kingdoms 三國演義 {{MongolUnicode|ᡳᠯᠠᠨ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
ᡳ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ}} Möllendorff: Ilan gurun-i bithe - Water Margin 水滸傳 {{MongolUnicode|}} Möllendorff: Sui hū bithe
- Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio 聊齋誌異 {{MongolUnicode|}} Möllendorff: Sonjofi ubaliyambuha Liyoo jai jy i bithe
==Plays==
- Romance of the Western Chamber 西廂記 {{MongolUnicode|}} Möllendorff: Manju nikan Si siang ki
==Bannerman tales==
A notable genre is 'Bannerman tales' (子弟書, zidishu), a sung verse narrative genre that developed within the Manchu bannerman community in Beijing in the 18th century, flourished in the 19th century and continued to be practiced even during the Republican era. There is at least one example of a Manchu-Mandarin bilingual text, but the Manchu version has been argued to be a translation from the Chinese one. Some other texts contain Manchu expressions within the Mandarin text, but most were only in Mandarin and were based on classic works of Chinese fiction. The performers were sometimes professionals, but often amateur bannermen and members of the Manchu elite.{{Cite journal|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/s/saksaha/13401746.0016.004?view=text;rgn=main|title=Book review: Bannermen Tales (Zidishu): Manchu Storytelling and Cultural Hybridity in the Qing Dynasty, by Elena Suet-Ying Chiu|first=Zhenzhen|last=Lu|date=Dec 25, 2019|journal=Saksaha: A Journal of Manchu Studies|volume=16|doi=10.3998/saksaha.13401746.0016.004|doi-access=free}}
=Works issued in multilingual copies=
{{Empty section|date=March 2019}}
=Original Manchu literature=
A rare example of Manchu folklore recorded in a Manchu-language manuscript is the Tale of the Nisan Shaman.{{Cite web |url=https://book.douban.com/subject/30279182/ |title=Нишань самана битхэ (Предание о нишанской шаманке) (豆瓣) |access-date=2021-11-17 |archive-date=2021-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117100738/https://book.douban.com/subject/30279182/ |url-status=dead }} Some Qing emperors such as the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors composed poems in Manchu, such as Ode to Mukden. An official by the name of Tulišen (1667-1741) wrote Record of Foreign Regions (Manchu: Lakcaha jecen be takūraha babe ejehe bithe), a journal describing his journey to the Volga to meet Ayuki, khan of the Torguts. The most extensive original work in Manchu is Record of the Words of One Hundred and Twenty Old Men (Manchu: Emu tanggū orin sakda-i gisun sarkiyan) by Sungyun (1754-1835), a collection of 120 essays on numerous different subjects.
References
{{reflist}}
Bibliography
- {{cite journal
|last =Crossley
|first = Pamela Kyle and Evelyn S. Rawski
|title =A Profile of the Manchu Language in Ch'ing History
|journal =Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
|volume =53
|issue = 1
|pages =63–102
|year =1993
|jstor = 2719468
|doi = 10.2307/2719468}}
- {{cite journal
|last =Durrant
|first =Stephen
|title =Manchu Translations of Chou Dynasty Texts
|journal =Early China
|volume =3
|pages =52–54
|publisher =Society for the Study of Early China
|date=Fall 1977
|jstor = 23351361
|doi = 10.1017/S0362502800006623|s2cid =191822020
}}
- {{cite journal
|last =Elliott
|first =Mark
|title =Why Study Manchu?
|journal =Manchu Studies Group
|date =2013
|url = http://www.manchustudiesgroup.org/why-study-manchu/
}}
- {{cite journal
|last =Hanson, Marta
|title =The "Golden Mirror" in the Imperial Court of the Qianlong Emperor, 1739-1742
|journal =Early Science and Medicine
|volume =8
|issue = 2
|pages =111–147
|year =2003
|jstor = 4130134
|doi = 10.1163/157338203x00035|pmid =15043047
}}
- {{cite journal
|last =Hauer
|first =Erich
|title =Why the Sinologue Should Study Manchu
|journal =Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
|volume =61
|pages =156–164
|date =1930
|url = http://www.manchustudiesgroup.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Hauer-Eric-Why-the-Sinologue-should-study-Manchu.pdf
}}
- {{cite journal|journal=Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|title=Essay on Manchu Literature|first=P. G.|last=von Möllendorff|year=1890|volume=24-25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=saJDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1|pages=1–45|access-date=24 April 2014}}
- {{cite journal
|last =Norman, Jerry
|title =The Manchus and Their Language (Presidential Address)
|journal =Journal of the American Oriental Society
|volume =123
|issue = 3
|pages =483–491
|year =2003
|jstor = 3217747
|doi = 10.2307/3217747}}
Further reading
- {{cite book |title=A catalog of the Wade collection of Chinese and Manchu books in the library of the University of Cambridge |first=Thomas Francis |last=Wade |editor=Herbert Allen Giles |year=1898 |publisher=University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/catalogofwadecol00cambrich}}
- {{cite book |title=A Catalogue of the Collection of Chinese and Manchu Books Given to the University of Cambridge |year=1898 |publisher=The University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CEVDAAAAYAAJ}}
- {{cite book |title=Descriptive catalogue of the Chinese, Japanese, and Manchu books |editor=James Summers |year=1872 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5AuAAAAYAAJ}}
- Toh, Hoong Teik, and 卓鴻澤. 2007. “Translation, Poetry and Lute Tunes Some Manchu Writings of Mingsioi and Jakdan”. Central Asiatic Journal 51 (2). Harrassowitz Verlag: 223–46. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41928458 Translation, Poetry and Lute Tunes Some Manchu Writings of Mingsioi and Jakdan].
{{Asian topic|| literature}}
{{China topics|state=autocollapse}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Manchu Literature}}