Martyr#Martyrdom in the Middle East

File:King Charles I from NPG.jpg is regarded by many members of the Church of England as a martyr because, it is said,{{cite journal|last=Episcopal Church. Diocese of Eau Claire|title=annual convention|journal=Journal of the Diocese of EAU Claire |year=1978|quote=Whereas, as Bishop Creighton in 1895 said, 'Had Charles been willing to abandon the Church and give up the episcopacy, he might have saved his throne and his life, but on this point he stood firm. For this dying, saved it for the future'|publisher=The Diocese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wn_kAAAAMAAJ&q=stood+firm&pg=24}} he was offered his life if he would abandon the historic episcopacy in the Church of England. It is said he refused, however, believing that the Church of England was truly "Catholic" and should maintain the Catholic episcopate.]]

In its original meaning, the word martyr, meaning witness, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament of the Bible.See e.g. Alison A. Trites, The New Testament Concept of Witness, {{ISBN|978-0-521-60934-0}}. The process of bearing witness was not intended to lead to the death of the witness, although it is known from ancient writers (e.g., Josephus) and from the New Testament that witnesses often died for their testimonies.

During the early Christian centuries, the term acquired the extended meaning of believers who are called to witness for their religious belief, and on account of this witness, endure suffering or death. The term, in this later sense, entered the English language as a loanword. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom.

The early Christians who first began to use the term martyr in its new sense saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his crucifixion.Frances M. Young, The Use of Sacrificial Ideas in Greek Christian Writers from the New Testament to John Chrysostom (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004), pp. 107.Eusebius wrote of the early Christians: "They were so eager to imitate Christ ... they gladly yielded the title of martyr to Christ, the true Martyr and Firstborn from the dead." Eusebius, Church History 5.1.2.Scholars believe that Revelation was written during the period when the word for witness was gaining its meaning of martyr. Revelation describes several Christian reh with the term martyr (Rev 17:6, 12:11, 2:10–13), and describes Jesus in the same way ("Jesus Christ, the faithful witness/martyr" in Rev 1:5, and see also Rev 3:14). The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as the archetypal martyr.A. J. Wallace and R. D. Rusk, Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), pp. 217–229.

The word martyr is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the following table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms.

In contemporary Middle Eastern cultures, the term for 'martyr’ (Arabic shahid) has more uses than the English word ‘martyr’.{{cite journal |last1=Fierke |title=Martyrdom in the contemporary Middle East and north Africa |journal=Political Self-Sacrifice: Agency, Body and Emotion in International Relations |date=2012 |page= 198|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139248853.011|isbn=9781139248853 }}

While the term can be narrowly used for a person who is killed because of their religion, it is more generally used to mean a person who died a violent death. Thus it can arguably mean a general ‘victim’.{{cite news |last1=Whitaker |first1=Brian |title=Martyrs, never victims |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/oct/13/israel12 |work=The Guardian |date=October 12, 2000}}

A person is a martyr if they were killed because of their identity, because of natural disasters like earthquakes,{{cite journal |last1=Akasoy |first1=Anna |title=Islamic Attitudes to Disasters in the Middle Ages: A Comparison of Earthquakes and Plagues |journal=The Medieval History Journal |date=2006 |volume=10 |issue=1–2 |page=398 |doi=10.1177/097194580701000214 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/097194580701000214}} or while performing relief or health care work. For example, İbrahim Bilgen was killed by Israel in the 2010 Gaza flotilla raid. Because he died as a humantiarian activist, he is called a martyr by Al-Jazeera.{{cite news |last1=Keddie |first1=Patrick |title=Remembering the Mavi Marmara victims |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/7/21/remembering-the-mavi-marmara-victims |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=21 Jul 2016}}

Martyrdom is also tied with nationalism, because a martyr can be a person who died in the context of national struggle.{{cite journal |last1=Buckner, Elizabeth and Khatib, Lina |title=The Martyrs' Revolutions: The Role of Martyrs in the Arab Spring |journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies |date=2014 |volume=41 |issue=4 |page=370 |doi=10.1080/13530194.2014.918802 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13530194.2014.918802}} For example, in Beirut, Martyrs' Square is a public square that's dedicated to Lebanese nationalists who were executed by the Ottomans.

In Palestine, the word ‘martyr’ is traditionally used to mean a person killed by Israeli forces, regardless of religion.{{cite web |date=January 4, 2018 |title=The Culture of Palestinian Shaheeds |url=https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/app/uploads/2018/01/E_002_18.pdf |access-date=9 December 2023 |website=The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center}}{{cite journal |last1=Fierke |title=Martyrdom in the contemporary Middle East and north Africa |journal=Political Self-Sacrifice: Agency, Body and Emotion in International Relations |date=2012 |page= 216|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139248853.011|isbn=9781139248853 }} For example, Shireen Abu Akleh was a Palestinian Christian journalist who was killed by Israeli forces, and Arabic media calls her a ‘martyr’.{{cite news |last1=Alamuddin |first1=Baria |title=Shireen Abu Akleh: A martyr to the truth of Israeli inhumanity |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2082786 |publisher=Arab News |date=May 16, 2022}} This reflects a communal belief that every Palestinian death is part of a resistance against Israeli occupation.{{cite news |last1=Raja Abdulrahim and Hiba Yazbek |title=For Palestinians, a Rush to Claim 'Martyrs' Killed by Israel |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/31/world/middleeast/palestinian-martyrs-israel.html |work=The New York Times |date=December 31, 2022}} Children are likewise called martyrs, such as the late children of journalist Wael Al-Dahdouh who were killed in an Israeli airstrike.{{cite news |last1=Abu Mazen |first1=Saddam |title=كتاب وأدباء عرب: صلابة وائل الدحدوح نموذج للجسارة الفلسطينية [Arab writers and writers: Wael Al-Dahdouh's toughness is a model of Palestinian courage] |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/culture/2023/10/28/%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D9%88%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AD |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=October 28, 2023}}

The label of martyrdom is used as a form of memoralizing the dead within some narrative, such as how the victims of the 2020 Beirut explosion were called ‘martyrs of corruption’ as a form of protest against the government.{{cite web |last1=ICSR Team |title=Martyrdom in Lebanon: An Evolution of Memory-Making |url=https://www.xcept-research.org/martyrdom-in-lebanon-an-evolution-of-memory-making/ |website=International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation|date=10 May 2023 }}

The wide usage of ‘martyr’ is not restricted to Arabic. Armenian culture likewise uses the term for the victims of the Armenian genocide, who are called Holy Martyrs.{{cite web |title=Holy Martyrs of the Armenian Genocide |url=https://armenianchurch.us/the-saints/holy-martyrs-of-the-armenian-genocide/ |website=The Armenian Church, Eastern Diocese of America |access-date=28 October 2023}} April 24 is Armenian Genocide Memorial Day, and also called "Armenian Martyrs Day".{{cite web |last1=The Genocide Education Project |title=President Biden formally recognizes the Armenian Genocide |url=https://genocideeducation.org/president-biden-formally-recognizes-the-armenian-genocide/}}

{{main|Martyrdom in Chinese culture}}

Martyrdom was extensively promoted by the Tongmenghui and the Kuomintang party in modern China. Revolutionaries who died fighting against the Qing dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution and throughout the Republic of China period, furthering the cause of the revolution, were recognized as martyrs.{{Citation needed|date = December 2016}}

According to Stephen Knapp,{{who|date=November 2024}} despite the promotion of ahimsa (non-violence) within Sanatana Dharma, and there being no concept of martyrdom,{{cite book| author= Stephen Knapp | year= 2006 | title= The Power of the Dharma: An Introduction to Hinduism and Vedic Culture | publisher= iUniverse | isbn= 978-0-595-83748-9 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=O9upBAAAQBAJ&q=martyrdom+&pg=PT138 }} there is the belief of righteous duty (dharma), where violence is used as a last resort to resolution after all other means have failed. Examples of this are found in the Mahabharata. Upon completion of their exile, the Pandavas were refused the return of their portion of the kingdom by their cousin Duryodhana; and following which all means of peace talks by Krishna, Vidura and Sanjaya failed. During the great war which commenced, even Arjuna was brought down with doubts, e.g., attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where Krishna instructs Arjuna how to carry out his duty as a righteous warrior and fight.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

File:Mehdiana 5.jpg of the execution of Banda Singh Bahadur by Mughals in 1716.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} ]]

{{main|Martyrdom in Sikhism}}

{{see also|Istishhad #Sikhism}}

Martyrdom (called shahadat in Punjabi) is a fundamental concept in Sikhism and represents an important institution of the faith. Sikhs believe in Ibaadat se Shahadat (from love to martyrdom). Some famous Sikh martyrs include:{{cite web |author=Sandeep Singh Bajwa |url=http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/martyrs/nojava.html |title=Biographies of Great Sikh Martyrs |publisher=Sikh-history.com |date=2000-02-11 |access-date=2014-08-22 |archive-date=2019-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403054654/http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/martyrs/nojava.html |url-status=dead }}

• Guru Arjan, the fifth leader of Sikhism. Guru ji was brutally tortured for almost 5 days before he attained shaheedi, or martyrdom.
• Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth guru of Sikhism, martyred on 11 November 1675. He is also known as Dharam Di Chadar (i.e. "the shield of Religion"), suggesting that to save Hinduism, the guru gave his life.
• Bhai Dayala is one of the Sikhs who was martyred at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 due to his refusal to accept Islam.
• Bhai Mati Das is considered by some one of the greatest martyrs in Sikh history, martyred at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 to save Hindu Brahmins.
• Bhai Sati Das is also considered by some one of the greatest martyrs in Sikh history, martyred along with Guru Teg Bahadur at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 to save kashmiri pandits.
• Sahibzada Ajit Singh, Sahibzada Jujhar Singh, Sahibzada Zorawar Singh and Sahibzada Fateh Singh – the four sons of Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Sikh guru.
• Bhai Mani Singh, who came from a family of over 20 different martyrs

File:Attavante, martirio dei sette fratelli ebrei, bibl ap vaticana bibbia ms. urb lat 2 f 174v.jpg , Attavante degli Attavanti, Vatican Library.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} ]]

{{main|Martyrdom in Judaism}}{{See also|Self-sacrifice in Jewish law|Kiddush Hashem}}

Martyrdom in Judaism is one of the main examples of Kiddush Hashem, meaning "sanctification of God's name" through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the more significant contributions of Hellenistic Judaism to Western Civilization. 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees recount numerous martyrdoms suffered by Jews resisting Hellenizing (adoption of Greek ideas or customs of a Hellenistic civilization) by their Seleucid overlords, being executed for such crimes as observing the Sabbath, circumcising their boys or refusing to eat pork or meat sacrificed to foreign gods. However, the notion of martyrdom in the Jewish and Christian traditions differ considerably.See Philippe Bobichon, « Martyre talmudique et martyre chrétien », Kentron : Revue du Monde Antique et de Psychologie Historique 11, 2 (1995) and 12, 1 (1996), pp. 109–129

File:Westminster Abbey C20th martyrs.jpg—l. to r. Mother Elizabeth of Russia, Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., Archbishop Óscar Romero and Pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} ]]

{{main|Christian martyr}}

In Christianity, a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek term martys in the New Testament, is one who brings a testimony, usually written or verbal. In particular, the testimony is that of the Christian Gospel, or more generally, the Word of God. A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not death follows.See Davis, R.[http://www.newmatthewbible.org/martyr.html "Martyr, or Witness?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511195005/http://www.newmatthewbible.org/martyr.html |date=2011-05-11 }}, New Matthew Bible Project

File:Christian martyrs burned at the stake in Madagascar.jpg in Madagascar.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} ]]

The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention. Analyses of the Passion narratives in the Gospels have led many scholars to conclude that they are martyrdom accounts in terms of genre and style.J. W. van Henten, "Jewish Martyrdom and Jesus' Death" in Jörg Frey & Jens Schröter (eds.), Deutungen des Todes Jesu im Neuen Testament (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005) pp. 157–168.Donald W. Riddle, "The Martyr Motif in the Gospel According to Mark." The Journal of Religion, IV.4 (1924), pp. 397–410.M. E. Vines, M. E. Vines, "The 'Trial Scene' Chronotype in Mark and the Jewish Novel", in G. van Oyen and T. Shepherd (eds.), The Trial and Death of Jesus: Essays on the Passion Narrative in Mark (Leuven: Peeters, 2006), pp. 189–203. Several scholars have also concluded that Paul the Apostle understood Jesus' death as a martyrdom.Stephen Finlan, The Background and Content of Paul's Cultic Atonement Metaphors (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2004), pp. 193–210Sam K. Williams, Death as Saving Event: The Background and Origin of a Concept (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press for Harvard Theological Review, 1975), pp. 38–41.David Seeley, The Noble Death (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990), pp. 83–112.Stanley Stowers, A Rereading of Romans: Justice, Jews, and Gentiles (Ann Arbor: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 212ff.Jarvis J. Williams, Maccabean Martyr Traditions in Paul's Theology of Atonement (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2010)S. A. Cummins, Paul and the Crucified Christ in Antioch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). In light of such conclusions, some have argued that the early Christians of the first three centuries would have interpreted the crucifixion of Jesus as a martyrdom.Stephen J. Patterson, Beyond the Passion: Rethinking the Death and Life of Jesus (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2004).

In the context of church history, from the time of the persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire under the Julio-Claudian dynasty, it developed that a martyr was one who was killed for maintaining a religious belief, knowing that this will almost certainly result in imminent death (though without intentionally seeking death). This definition of martyr is not specifically restricted to the Christian faith. Christianity recognizes certain Old Testament Jewish figures, like Abel and the Maccabees, as holy, and the New Testament mentions the imprisonment and beheading of John the Baptist, Jesus's possible cousin and his prophet and forerunner. The first Christian witness, after the establishment of the Christian faith at Pentecost, to be killed for his testimony was Saint Stephen (whose name means "crown"), and those who suffer martyrdom are said to have been "crowned". From the time of the Roman Emperor Constantine, Christianity was decriminalized, and then, under Theodosius I, became the state religion, which greatly diminished persecution (although not for non-Nicene Christians). As some wondered how then they could most closely follow Christ there was a development of desert spirituality characterized by a eremitic lifestyle, renunciation, self-mortification, and separation from the world, practiced by several desert monks and Christian ascetics in late antiquity (such as Paul the Hermit and Anthony the Great). This was a kind of white martyrdom, dying to oneself every day, as opposed to a red martyrdom, the giving of one's life in a violent death.Arena, Saints, directed by Paul Tickell, 2006

File:Anneken van den Hove te Brussel levend begraven (Jan Luyken, 1597).PNG's drawing of the Anabaptist Anna Utenhoven being buried alive at Vilvoorde (present-day Belgium) in 1597. In the engraving, her head is still above the ground and the Catholic priest is exhorting her to recant her faith, while the executioner stands ready to completely cover her up upon her refusal. This engraving was part of a major Protestant outrage praising Utenhoven as a martyr.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} ]]

In the history of Christianity, death due to sectarian persecutions by other Christians has been regarded as martyrdom as well. There were martyrs recognized on both sides of the schism between the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England after 1534. Two hundred and eighty-eight Christians were martyred for their faith by public burning between 1553 and 1558 by the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I in England leading to the reversion to the Church of England under Queen Elizabeth I in 1559. "From hundreds to thousands" of Waldensians were martyred in the Massacre of Mérindol in 1545. Three-hundred Roman Catholics were said to have been martyred by the Church authorities in England in the 16th and 17th centuries.{{Cite web |title=Forty Martyrs of England and Wales {{!}} Description, History, Canonization, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Forty-Martyrs-of-England-and-Wales |access-date=2022-09-13 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}

Even more modern day accounts of martyrdom for Christ exist, depicted in books such as Jesus Freaks, though the numbers are disputed. The claim that 100,000 Christians are killed for their faith annually is greatly exaggerated according to the BBC, with many of those deaths due to war,{{cite news|last=Alexander |first=Ruth |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-24864587 |title=Are there really 100,000 new Christian martyrs every year? |work=BBC News |date=2013-11-12 |access-date=2014-08-22}} but the fact of ongoing Christian martyrdoms remains undisputed.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50924266|title=IS 'beheads Christian hostages' in Nigeria|date=2019-12-27|work=BBC News|access-date=2020-02-17|language=en-GB}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/world/martyr-killed-by-bulldozer-becomes-symbol-of-growing-persecution-of-christians-in-china|title=Martyr killed by bulldozer becomes symbol of growing persecution of Christians in China|last=Chiaramonte|first=Perry|date=2016-04-21|website=Fox News|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-17}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Christian-News/Christian-evangelist-murdered-in-southeast-Turkey-608669|title=Christian evangelist murdered in southeast Turkey|website=The Jerusalem Post|date=22 November 2019 |access-date=2020-02-17|author-first1=Donna Rachel|author-last1=Edmunds}}{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/christian-martyrs-victims-radical-islam/story?id=9976549|title=Christianity's Modern-Day Martyrs: Victims of Radical Islam|website=ABC News|language=en|access-date=2020-02-17}}{{clear left}}

File:Brooklyn Museum - Battle of Karbala - Abbas Al-Musavi - overall.jpg at the Battle of Karbala in 680 AD{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} |alt=]]

{{main|Shahid|Istishhad|Mujahid}}

Shahid is an Arabic term in Islam meaning "witness", and is also used to denote a martyr; a female martyr is named shahida. The term Shahid occurs frequently in the Quran in the generic sense "witness", but only once in the sense "martyr, one who dies for his faith"; this latter sense acquires wider use in the ḥadīth literature. Islam views a martyr as a man or woman who dies while conducting jihad, whether on or off the battlefield (see greater jihad and lesser jihad).A. Ezzati (1986). [http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/concept-ezzati.htm The Concept Of Martyrdom In Islam]. Tehran University.

The concept of martyrdom in Islam became prominent during the Islamic Revolution in Iran (1979) and the subsequent Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), so that the cult of the martyr had a lasting impact on the course of revolution and war.Gölz, [https://www.academia.edu/39134486/G%C3%B6lz_Martyrdom_and_Masculinity_in_Warring_Iran_The_Karbala_Paradigm_the_Heroic_and_the_Personal_Dimensions_of_War._Behemoth_12_no._1_2019_35_51 "Martyrdom and Masculinity in Warring Iran. The Karbala Paradigm, the Heroic, and the Personal Dimensions of War."], Behemoth 12, no. 1 (2019): 35–51, 35. Since the early 2000s, it has been primarily associated with Islamic extremism and jihadism.{{cite journal |author-last=Karimi |author-first=Nima |date=December 2023 |title=The Punishment of the Grave: A Neglected Motivation for Jihad and Martyrdom |url=https://pt.icct.nl/sites/default/files/2023-12/A6%20-%20Karimi%20with%20changes.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Perspectives on Terrorism |publisher=International Centre for Counter-Terrorism |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=127–151 |issn=2334-3745 |jstor=27274061 |jstor-access=free |lccn=2014200073 |oclc=1061231390 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502192454/https://pt.icct.nl/sites/default/files/2023-12/A6%20-%20Karimi%20with%20changes.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2024 |access-date=3 May 2024}}

{{main|Martyrdom in the Baháʼí Faith}}

In the Baháʼí Faith, martyrs are those who sacrifice their lives serving humanity in the name of God.{{cite book | title = Dying for God: Martyrdom in the Shi'i and Babi Religions | first = Jonah | last = Winters | date = 1997-09-19 | access-date = 2007-01-23 | chapter = Conclusion | url = http://bahai-library.com/theses/dying/dying8.conclusion.html | publisher = M.A. Thesis | archive-date = 2020-02-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200218065600/http://bahai-library.com/theses/dying/dying8.conclusion.html | url-status = dead }} However, Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, discouraged the literal meaning of sacrificing one's life. Instead, he explained that martyrdom is devoting oneself to service to humanity.

File:Interior of Martyrs Shrine Coliseum.jpg, Auriesville, New York, showing the sanctuary and high altar]]

• 399 BCE – Socrates, a Greek philosopher who chose to die rather than renounce his ideals.
• {{Circa|34 CE}} – Saint Stephen, considered to be the first Christian martyr.
• {{Circa|2nd century CE}} – Ten Martyrs of Judaism.
• {{Circa|288}} – Saint Sebastian, the subject of many works of art.
• {{Circa|304}} – Saint Agnes of Rome, beheaded for refusing to forsake her devotion to Christ, for Roman paganism.
• {{Circa|680}} – Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of Muhammed beheaded for opposing the Umayyad Caliphate.
• {{Circa|692}} – Abdullah ibn Zubair, martyred for opposing the Umayyad Caliphate.{{Cite web |date=2018-06-03 |title=Biography of Hazrat Abdullah bin az-Zubayr (رضئ اللہ تعالی عنہ) |url=https://aalequtub.com/hazrat-abdullah-bin-az-zubayr-%d8%b1%d8%b6%d8%a6-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%84%db%81-%d8%aa%d8%b9%d8%a7%d9%84%db%8c-%d8%b9%d9%86%db%81/ |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=Aal-e-Qutub |language=en}}
• 1415 – Jan Hus, Christian reformer burned at the stake for heresy.
• 1535 – Thomas More, beheaded for refusing to acknowledge Henry VIII as Supreme Head of the Church of England. Canonised in 1935.
• 1606 – Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth leader of Sikhism.
• 1675 – Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth guru of Sikhism, referred to as "Hind di Chadar" or "Shield of India" martyred in defense of religious freedom of Hindus.
• 1844 – Joseph Smith Jr., founder of Mormonism, killed by a mob in Carthage Jail, Illinois.
• 1918–1991 – New Martyrs and Confessors of the Russian Orthodox Church, persecuted by communists in the Soviet Union after the October Revolution.
• 1941 – Maximilian Kolbe, a Roman Catholic priest who was martyred in the Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz.

In politics, a martyr is someone who suffers persecution and/or death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, and/or refusing to advocate a political belief or cause.

{{see also|Separatism|Independence|Irredentism}}

The Manchester Martyrs were three Irishmen executed after being convicted for the murder of a Manchester City Police officer in 1867. The day after the executions, Frederick Engels wrote to Karl Marx: "Yesterday morning the Tories, by the hand of Mr Calcraft, accomplished the final act of separation between England and Ireland. The only thing that the Fenians still lacked were martyrs. ... To my knowledge, the only time that anybody has been executed for a similar matter in a civilised country was the case of John Brown at Harpers Ferry. The Fenians could not have wished for a better precedent."Marx and Engels in Ireland (1971) Progress Publishers, Moscow. [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867/letters/67_11_24.htm Letter of November 24 1867 Engels to Marx] Ten Irish Republican Army members died during a 1981 hunger strike, including Bobby Sands.

The Belfiore martyrs (in Italian, Martiri di Belfiore) were a group of Italian pro-independence fighters condemned to death by hanging in 1853 during the Italian Risorgimento. They included Tito Speri and the priest Enrico Tazzoli and are named after the site where the sentence was carried out, in the valley of Belfiore at the south entrance to Mantua.

The Tolpuddle Martyrs were a group of 19th century agricultural labourers in Dorset, England, who were arrested for and convicted of swearing a secret oath as members of the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers. The rules of the society showed it was clearly structured as a friendly society, that is, a mutual association for the purposes of insurance, pensions, savings or cooperative banking; and it operated as a trade-specific benefit society. But at the time, friendly societies had strong elements of what are now considered to be the principal role of trade unions, and wages were at issue. The Tolpuddle Martyrs were sentenced not to death but to transportation to Australia, a harsh form of exile.{{cite web |date= |title=The Tolpuddle Martyrs |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/England-History/TolpuddleMartyrs.htm |accessdate=2014-08-22 |publisher=Historic-uk.com|author-first1=Ellen|author-last1=Castelow}}

{{see also|Martyrdom in Chinese culture}}

In the People's Republic of China, people who died in the cause of the Communist Party{{mdash}}most particularly the many victims of the 1927 Shanghai massacre but also including devoted humanitarians during the Chinese Civil War such as the Canadian physician Tillson Harrison{{mdash}}are honored and commemorated as martyrs. The red scarf worn by the 100+ million Young Pioneers honors their spilt blood. Jiang Zhuyun and Liu Hulan are notable female martyrs who have been commemorated in various media. Notable monuments include the Monument to the People's Heroes at the confluence of Suzhou Creek and the Huangpu River in central Shanghai and the Longhua Martyrs' Memorial.

Many communist activists have died as martyrs in India, due to their allegiance to various communist parties, such as the CPI(M) and the CPI. Most of them hail from mainly leftist states such as Kerala, and Tripura. In Kerala, many are killed in protests by the police, and some are assassinated by activists in other political parties, such as the INC and the RSS. The district of Kannur has reported to have had the most political murders. Here, the RSS are known to have used brutal violence to eliminate CPI(M) workers.

In the United States, the assassinations of Malcolm X in 1965 and Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968 have been linked to their leadership in movements to improve the rights and quality of life of black citizens, black nationalism and the civil rights movement respectively.

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A political martyr is someone who suffers persecution or death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a political belief or cause.

• 1835 – King Hintsa kaKhawuta, a Xhosa monarch who was shot and killed while attempting to escape captivity during Sixth Frontier War, also known as the Hintsa War.
• 1859 – John Brown, a militant abolitionist who was executed after his raid on Harper's Ferry. Many abolitionists of the time extolled him as a martyr.
• 1865 – Abraham Lincoln, 16th U.S. President. Assassinated by a Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth after the end of the American Civil War.
• 1940 – Leon Trotsky murdered on the Orders of Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin by NKVD agent Ramón Mercader in Mexico City, Trotsky is considered a Marytr by Trotskyist Internationals.
• 1967 – Che Guevara, an influential Marxist–Leninist revolutionary in Cuba, the Congo, and Bolivia who was executed in Bolivia by counter-revolutionary forces. He has since become a figure of political protests and revolutions worldwide.
• 2024 – Alexei Navalny, a Russian opposition leader, lawyer, anti-corruption activist, and political prisoner who died while serving a 19-year prison sentence in the corrective colony FKU IK-3.

The term "revolutionary martyr" usually relates to those dying in revolutionary struggle.The French Revolution Page 95 Linda Frey, Marsha Frey – 2004 "He was immortalized by the painter David in the famous painting of the death scene that became the icon of the revolution and an emblem of revolutionary propaganda. The revolutionary martyr was commemorated not only in painting and in ..."Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican ... p. 250 John Mason Hart – 1987 "They popularized Ricardo Flores Magon as a revolutionary martyr who was harassed by the American and Mexican ..." During the 20th century, the concept was developed in particular in the culture and propaganda of communist or socialist revolutions, although it was and is also used in relation to nationalist revolutions.

• In the culture of North Korea, martyrdom is a consistent theme in the ongoing revolutionary struggle, as depicted in literary works such as Sea of Blood. There is also a Revolutionary Martyrs' Cemetery in the country.
• In Vietnam, those who died in the independence struggle are often honoured as martyrs, or liệt sĩ in Vietnamese. Nguyễn Thái Học and schoolgirl Võ Thị Sáu are two examples.Vietnam At War Mark Philip Bradley – 2009 "As the concept of 'sacrifice' (hi sinh) came to embody the state's narrative of sacred war (chien tranh than thanh), the ultimate sacrifice was considered to be death in battle as a 'revolutionary martyr' (liet si)."
• In India, the term "revolutionary martyr" is often used when referring to the world history of socialist struggle. Guru Radha Kishan was a notable Indian independence activist and communist politician known to have used this phrasing.
• In Algeria, those who died in the Algerian war for independence are officially recognized as martyrs.{{Cite web |author=The New Arab Staff |date=2021-10-04 |title=Algeria says 5.6 million died under French colonialism |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/algeria-says-56-million-died-under-french-colonialism |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=www.newarab.com/ |language=en}}

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• Altruistic suicide
• Martyr complex
• Martyrology
• Martyrs Mirror
• Perpetua and Felicity
• Religious persecution
• Religious views on suicide

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• [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09736b.htm "Martyrs"], Catholic Encyclopedia
• Foster, Claude R. Jr. (1995). Paul Schneider, the Buchenwald apostle: a Christian martyr in Nazi Germany: A Sourcebook on the German Church Struggle. Westchester, PA: SSI Bookstore, West Chester University. {{ISBN|978-1-887732-01-7}}
• History.com Editors. "Abolitionist John Brown Is Hanged". History.com, 4 Mar. 2010, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/john-brown-hanged.

• Bélanger, Jocelyn J., et al. "The Psychology of Martyrdom: Making the Ultimate Sacrifice in the Name of a Cause." Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 107.3 (2014): 494–515. Print.
• Kateb, George. "Morality and Self-Sacrifice, Martyrdom and Self-Denial." Social Research 75.2 (2008): 353–394. Print.
• Olivola, Christopher Y. and Eldar Shafir. "The Martyrdom Effect: When Pain and Effort Increase Prosocial Contributions." Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 26, no. 1 (2013): 91–105.
• PBS. "Plato and the Legacy of Socrates." PBS. https://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/41a.html (accessed October 21, 2014).
• Reeve, C. D. C.. A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub. Co., 2012. {{ISBN?}}

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• [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/foxe/martyrs.html Fox's Book of Martyrs] – 16th century classic book, accounts of martyrdoms
• [http://www.cqpress.com/incontext/terrorism/links/epr_martyrdom.html "Martyrdom from the perspective of sociology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923210929/http://www.cqpress.com/incontext/terrorism/links/epr_martyrdom.html |date=2015-09-23 }}. Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion.

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Category:Religious terminology

Category:Jungian archetypes

Category:Religion