Meuse–Argonne offensive

{{more citations needed section|date=September 2016}}

The logistical prelude to the Meuse attack was planned by American then-Colonel George C. Marshall who managed to move American units to the front after the Battle of Saint-Mihiel (Saint-Mihiel is a town on the river Meuse, the most important water obstacle on the Western Front).{{cite book |last1=James R. Penn and Larry Allen |title=Rivers of the World: A Social, Geographical, and Environmental Sourcebook |date=2001 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=154 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=koacGt0fhUoC&pg=PA154 |access-date=13 September 2019|isbn=9781576070420 }} The Allied breakthroughs (north, center, and east) across the length of the front line in September and October 1918 – including the Battle of the Argonne Forest – are now lumped together as part of what is generally remembered as the Grand Offensive (also known as the Hundred Days Offensive) by the Allies on the Western Front. The Meuse–Argonne offensive also involved troops from France, while the rest of the Allies, including France, Britain and its dominion and imperial armies (mainly Canada, Australia, and New Zealand), and Belgium contributed to major battles in more northwestern sectors of the Western Front, including the Hindenburg line.

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 104-0153, Argonnen, Soldaten beim Wasserholen.jpg

After Operation Michael, the 1918 German offensive, began well but ended with the disaster of Reims in front of the French and at Amiens to British forces, The French and British armies systematically pushed back a German army whose efficiency was decreasing rapidly. British, French, and Belgian advances in the northwestern sectors of the front, along with the French–American advances around the Argonne Forest, are credited for leading directly to the Armistice of November 11, 1918. On September 26, the Americans began their strike north toward Sedan. The next day, British and Belgian divisions drove toward Ghent, Belgium. British and French armies attacked across northern France on September 28. The scale of the overall offensive, bolstered by the fresh and eager but largely untried and inexperienced U.S. troops, signaled renewed vigor among the Allies and sharply dimmed German hopes for victory.

The Meuse–Argonne battle was the largest frontline commitment of troops by the U.S. Army in World War I, and also its deadliest. Command was coordinated, with some U.S. troops (e.g. the Buffalo Soldiers of the 92nd Division and the 93rd Division) attached and serving under French command (e.g. XVII Corps during the second phase).

{{Main article|Hundred Days Offensive}}

File:Meuse-Argonne Offensive - Map.jpg–Verdun and vicinity: The Meuse–Argonne offensive, September–November 1918 ({{circa|1938}})]]

{{further|American order of battle Meuse–Argonne offensive}}

The American forces initially consisted of 15 divisions of the U.S. First Army commanded by General John J. Pershing until October 16 and then by Lieutenant General Hunter Liggett.{{cite web | title = firstworldwar.com | url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/meuseargonne_pershing.htm | access-date = May 6, 2009}} The logistics were planned and directed by then Colonel George C. Marshall. The French forces next to them consisted of 31 divisions, including the Fourth Army (under Henri Gouraud) and the Fifth Army (under Henri Mathias Berthelot).{{cite web | title = Situation au debut d'Octobre 1918 (Situation at the beginning of October 1918) | url=http://pagesperso-orange.fr/grande.guerre/sitocobre18.html | access-date = October 8, 2009}} The U.S. divisions of the AEF were oversized (12 battalions per division versus the French-British-German nine battalions per division), being up to twice the size of other Allies' battle-depleted divisions upon arrival, but the French and other Allied divisions had been partly replenished prior to the Grand Offensive, so both the U.S. and French contributions in troops were considerable. All of the heavy equipment (tanks, artillery, and aircraft) was provided by the Allies (mainly by the French Army). For the Meuse–Argonne front alone, this represented 2,780 artillery pieces, 380 tanks, and 840 planes.

File:Famous generals of the great war who led the United States and her allies to a glorious victory (1919) (14596448378).jpg, Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF).]]

Concerning armored support, the 35th Division was completed by the 1st Tank Brigade (under George S. Patton) with 127 American-crewed Renault FT light tank and 28 French-crewed Schneider medium tanks. The 3rd US Tank brigade with 250 French-crewed tank was also involved supporting the V Corps. The 37th and 79th Division were augmented with a French tank regiment (Renault FT light tank) and 2 groups of medium tank (St-Chamond). The 91st Division was augmented with an equivalent force (1 light tank regiment and 2 groups medium tank).

File:Hunter Liggett.jpg, commanding the U.S. First Army.]]

As the battle progressed, both the Americans and the French brought in reinforcements. Eventually, 22 American divisions participated in the battle at one time or another, representing two full field armies.{{closed access}} {{cite news |title=Battle of Argonne Began 18 Years Ago |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=New York Times |quote=Eighteen years ago today at dawn the American First Army started its pivotal attack which smashed the Hindenburg line on the western front and forced the imperial German command to sue for armistice. |date=September 27, 1937 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1936/09/27/archives/battle-of-argonne-began-18-years-ago-47day-offensive-employing-22.html |access-date=September 26, 2013}} {{subscription required}} Other French forces involved included the 2nd Colonial Corps, under Henri Claudel, which had also fought alongside the AEF at the Battle of Saint-Mihiel earlier in September 1918.

File:Robert L Bullard.gif, commanding the U.S. Second Army.]]

The opposing forces were wholly German. During this period of the war, German divisions procured only 50 percent or less of their initial strength. The 117th Division, which opposed the U.S. 79th Division during the offensive's first phase, had only 3,300 men in its ranks. Morale varied among German units. For example, divisions that served on the Eastern front had high morale, while conversely divisions that had been on the Western front had poor morale. Resistance grew to approximately 200,000–450,000 German troops from the Fifth Army of Group Gallwitz commanded by General Georg von der Marwitz. The Americans estimated that they opposed parts of 44 German divisions overall, though many fewer at any one time.

• Pierce the Hindenburg Line: The primary objective of the Allied forces, particularly the AEF under the command of General John J. Pershing, was to breach the heavily fortified Hindenburg Line and advance beyond it. The Hindenburg Line was a series of heavily fortified defensive positions, including trenches, barbed wire entanglements, machine-gun nests, and artillery emplacements, designed to halt any Allied offensive.
• Advance into German Territory: By breaking through the Hindenburg Line, the Allies aimed to penetrate deep into German-held territory, disrupt enemy communication and supply lines, and weaken the German Army's ability to resist further Allied advances. This would also put pressure on Germany's ability to sustain the war effort, potentially hastening the end of the conflict.
• Force Germany to Surrender: The ultimate objective of the Battle of the Argonne Forest, as part of the broader Allied offensive on the Western Front, was to bring about the collapse of the German Army and compel Germany to seek an armistice and end the war. The success of the offensive was critical for achieving this goal and bringing about a decisive victory for the Allies.

File:U.S. Marines during the Meuse-Argonne Campaign.jpg in the battles of the Meuse-Argonne operation]]

The Allies decided to prepare for the assault on September 26 at 02:30 by launching one of the most expensive and stunning artillery barrages. This barrage was done with 2711 artillery guns and helped to destroy obstacles like barbed wire to help the Allies push up more effectively when the assault began. One of these artillery groups was led by Capt. Harry S. Truman, a future US president. "During the three hours preceding H hour, the Allies expended more ammunition than both sides managed to fire throughout the four years of the American Civil War. The cost was later calculated to have been $180 million, or $1 million per minute (about $3.5 billion in 2022 dollars)."{{Cite book|title=Patton: A Genius for War|last=D'Este|first=Carlo|publisher=Harper Collins|year=1995|isbn=0060164557|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pattongeniusforw00dest/page/254 254]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/pattongeniusforw00dest}} The American attack began at 05:30 on September 26 with mixed results. The V and III Corps met most of their objectives, but the 79th Division failed to capture Montfaucon, the 28th "Keystone" Division's attack virtually ground to a halt due to formidable German resistance, and the 91st "Wild West" Division was compelled to evacuate the village of Épinonville though it advanced {{convert|8|km|abbr=on}}. The inexperienced 37th "Buckeye" Division failed to capture Montfaucon d'Argonne.

File:Hill 223, Meuse-Argonne Offensive.jpg

The subsequent day, September 27 most of the 1st Army failed to make any gains. The 79th Division finally captured Montfaucon and the 35th "Santa Fe" Division captured the village of Baulny, Hill 218, and Charpentry, placing the division forward of adjacent units. On September 29, six extra German divisions were deployed to oppose the American attack, with the 5th Guards and 52nd Division counterattacking the 35th Division, which had run out of food and ammunition during the attack. The Germans initially made significant gains, but were barely repulsed by the 35th Division's 110th Engineers, 128th Machine Gun Battalion, and Harry Truman's Battery D, 129th Field Artillery. In the words of Pershing, "We were no longer engaged in a maneuver for the pinching out of a salient, but were necessarily committed, generally speaking, to a direct frontal attack against strong, hostile positions fully manned by a determined enemy."{{cite web|access-date=January 15, 2008 |title=The Meuse–Argonne Offensive: Part II: Pershing's Report|url=http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/bigshow2.htm|publisher=The Great War Society}}

The German counterattack had shattered so much of the 35th Division—a poorly led division, most of whose key leaders had been replaced shortly before the attack, made up of National Guard units from Missouri and Kansas—that it had to be relieved early, though remnants of the division subsequently reentered the battle.{{cite book|last=Ferrell|first=Robert H. |author-link=Robert Hugh Ferrell|title=Collapse at Meuse–Argonne: The Failure of the Missouri-Kansas Division|url=https://archive.org/details/collapseatmeusea00ferr|url-access=registration|year= 2004|publisher=University of Missouri Press|isbn=978-0-8262-6239-4|lccn= 2004004300}} Part of the adjacent French attack met temporary confusion when one of its generals died. Nevertheless, it was able to advance {{convert|15|km|abbr=on|0}}, penetrating deeply into the German lines, especially around Somme-Py (the Battle of Somme-Py ({{langx|fr|Bataille de Somme-Py}})) and northwest of Reims (the Battle of Saint-Thierry ({{langx|fr|Bataille de Saint-Thierry}})). The initial progress of the French forces was thus faster than the {{convert|3|to|8|km|abbr=on|0}} gained by the adjacent American units, though the French units were fighting in a more open terrain, which can be an easier terrain from which to attack.

With the US struggling to make the progress they wanted, as well as struggling to pull their logistics together, Pershing ordered a halt to the attack on October 1. This allowed Pershing to regroup all the men and reinforce the line. This move to halt the attack was not popular among the Allied Generals and almost lost Pershing his job. Despite the lack of faith in Pershing he was allowed to continue leading the offensive, and The Offensive started up again on October 4.{{Cite book |last=Faulkner |first=Richard |title=The US Army Campaigns of WWI: Meuse-Argonne |publisher=Center of Military History |year=2018 |edition=1st}}

File:111-SC-27427 - NARA - 55214325 (cropped) (cropped).jpgs of the 18th Infantry, 1st Division, holed in on the side of Hill 240, near Exermont, France, October 1918.]]

The second phase began on October 4, when the first assault divisions (the 91st, 79th, 37th and 35th) were replaced by the 32nd, 3rd and 1st Divisions. The 1st Division created a gap in the lines when it advanced {{convert|2.5|km|abbr=on}} against the 37th, 52nd, and 5th Guards Divisions.{{vague|date=September 2018}} It was during this phase that the Lost Battalion affair occurred. The battalion was rescued by an attack by the 28th and 82nd Divisions (the 82nd attacking soon after taking up its positions in the gap between the 28th and 1st Divisions) on October 7. On October 12 Pershing had to reorganize the AEF and First Army due to the many struggles that were occurring in the second phase including disasters like the lost battalion which reflected badly on Pershing's leadership. Pershing started by dividing the First Army into two smaller armies. The First Army would be led by Hunter Ligget, and the newly formed Second Army would be led by Robert Bullard. Pershing, now free to focus on just the AEF, cleaned out all of the AEF’s senior officers. This was done as Pershing felt the AEF leaders lacked the aggression that was needed in the offensive. The Americans launched a series of costly frontal assaults that finally broke through the main German defenses (the Krimhilde Stellung of the Hindenburg Line) between October 14–17 (the Battle of Montfaucon ({{langx|fr|Bataille de Montfaucon}})). During the Battle of Montfaucon Missouri and Kansas National Guard soldiers were the first U.S. troops who tried to break through the stronghold of the Hindenburg Line at Côte de Châtillon but they were repulsed due to poor leadership. Next, the elite U.S. 1st Infantry Division tried and failed after suffering catastrophic casualties. The Rainbow Division (42nd Division) under Brigadier General Douglas MacArthur was finally able to take Côte de Châtillon after exposing a gap in the German defenses that was discovered by MacArthur's soldiers. This victory at Côte de Châtillon was considered the decisive turning point of the whole Meuse–Argonne offensive.Frazer, Nimrod Thompson. The Best World War I Story I Know: On the Point in the Argonne, September 26–October 16, 1918 By the end of October, U.S. troops had advanced ten miles and cleared the Argonne Forest. On their left the French had advanced twenty miles, reaching the Aisne River. It was during the opening of this operation, on October 8, that Corporal (later Sergeant) Alvin York made his famous capture of 132 German prisoners near Cornay.{{cite journal| first = Thomas |last=Fleming |title=Meuse–Argonne offensive of World War I |journal=Military History |date=October 1993 |url=http://www.historynet.com/meuse-argonne-offensive-of-world-war-i.htm |publisher=HistoryNet.com}} On October 23, notable injuries were sustained to Major Frank Cavanaugh as a result of enemy shellfire. From October 27 to November 1 Liggett allowed the Army to reorganize. This was due to the huge number of casualties that the First Army had taken, with over 9000 men lost and over 100,000 men injured since the start of the operation. The First Army needed time to not only train the fresh troops coming in, but also needed time for First Army engineers to build roads and light rails. Liggett wanted to ensure that he had manpower and resources, since the advantage they held over the Germans was the ability to reinforce and outnumber.

File:A dead gunner in a German machine gun nest killed during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.webp, November 4, 1918.]]

By October 31, the Americans had advanced {{convert|15|km|abbr=on}} and had cleared the Argonne Forest. On their left the French had advanced {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}}, reaching the River Aisne. The American forces reorganized into two armies. The First, led by General Liggett, moved to the Carignan-Sedan-Mezieres Railroad. The Second Army, led by Lieutenant General Robert L. Bullard, was directed to move eastward toward Metz. The two U.S. armies faced portions of 31 German divisions during this phase. The American troops captured German defenses at Buzancy, allowing French troops to cross the River Aisne, whence they rushed forward, capturing Le Chesne (the Battle of Chesne ({{langx|fr|Bataille du Chesne}})).{{cite web | title = Novembre 1918 (November 1918) | url=http://pagesperso-orange.fr/grande.guerre/novembre18.html | access-date = October 8, 2009}} In the final days, the French forces conquered the immediate objective, Sedan and its critical railroad hub (the Advance to the Meuse ({{langx|fr|Poussée vers la Meuse}})), on November 6 and American forces captured surrounding hills. On November 11, news of the German armistice put a sudden end to the fighting.

==Image gallery==

• List of military engagements of World War I
• Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery
• Meuse-Argonne American Memorial

{{reflist}}

{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}

• {{cite book |last=Baker |first=Horace Leonard |year=2007 |editor-last=Ferrell |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Hugh Ferrell |title=Argonne Days in World War I |url=https://archive.org/details/argonnedaysinwor00bake |url-access=registration |location=Columbia, Mo. |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=978-0-8262-6575-3}}
• {{Cite book| last = Braim |first=Paul |title= The Test of Battle: the American Expeditionary Forces in the Meuse-Argonne Campaign

| location = Newark |publisher= University of Delaware Press |year=1987 |isbn= 0-87413-301-7 |oclc=14240589 }}

• {{Cite book | last = Clodfelter |first= Micheal |title= The Lost Battalion and the Meuse-Argonne, 1918: America's Deadliest Battle

| location = Jefferson, N.C. |publisher= McFarland|year=2007 |isbn=978-0786426799 |oclc=71812758}}

• {{cite book |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |author-link=Robert Hugh Ferrell|year=2008 |title=The Question of MacArthur's Reputation: Côte de Châtillon, October 14–16, 1918 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zrCIYfGlg4C |location=Columbia, Mo. |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=978-0-8262-6651-4}}
• {{cite book |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |author-link=Robert Hugh Ferrell |date=2011 |title=Unjustly Dishonored: An African American Division in World War I |url=https://archive.org/details/unjustlydishonor00ferr |url-access=registration |location=Columbia, Mo. |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=978-0-8262-1916-9 |lccn=2012462746}}
• {{Cite book| last=Lengel |first=Edward G. |title= To Conquer Hell |location=New York|publisher=Henry Holt|year=2008| isbn= 978-0-8050-7931-9}}
• Lengel, Edward G., ed. A Companion to the Meuse-Argonne Campaign (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014). xii, 537 pp.
• {{Cite book| last=Mastriano |first=Douglas |title=Thunder in the Argonne: A New History of America's Greatest Battle (Battles and Campaigns Series) |location=Lexington |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |year=2018}}
• {{Cite book| last=Palmer |first=Fredrick |title=Our Greatest Battle: The Meuse Argonne|location=New York |publisher=Dodd, Meade |year=1919}}
• {{cite magazine|last=Price|first=Craig|date=December 2018|title=Meuse-Argonne: The Final Push to Victory|magazine=VFW Magazine|volume=106|number=3|location=Kansas City, Mo.|publisher=Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States|pages=16–18|issn=0161-8598|quote=For Doughboys of the 89th Infantry Division, a desperate fight in a French forest illustrated the brutality of World War I's final months. The Meuse–Argonne Offensive was the war's largest and bloodiest campaign for U.S. troops, but it marked the beginning of the end of the war.}}
• {{cite book |last=Stackpole |first=Pierpont L. |year=2009 |editor-last=Ferrell |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Hugh Ferrell |title= In the Company of Generals: The World War I Diary of Pierpont L. Stackpole |location=Columbia, Mo. |publisher=University of Missouri Press |lccn=2009028219 |isbn= 978-0826218704}}
• {{cite book |last=Triplet |first=William S. |date=2000 |editor-last=Ferrell |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Hugh Ferrell |title=A Youth in the Meuse-Argonne |location=Columbia, Mo. |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=0-8262-1290-5 |lccn=00029921 |oclc=43707198 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/youthinmeuseargo00trip }}
• {{Cite book |last=Wright |first=William M. |date=2004 |editor-last=Ferrell |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Hugh Ferrell |title=Meuse-Argonne Diary: A Division Commander in World War I |location=Columbia, Mo. |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=978-0826215277 |oclc=70757341}}
• Yockelson, Mitchell. Forty-Seven Days: How Pershing's Warriors Came of Age to Defeat at the German Army in World War I (New York: NAL, Caliber, 2016) {{ISBN|978-0-451-46695-2}}

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{{Commons category}}

• [https://www.abmc.gov/multimedia/videos/battlefield-experience-meuse-argonne-offensive Battlefield Experience: The Meuse–Argonne Offensive] at American Battle Monuments Commission
• [https://www.archives.gov/research/military/ww1/meuse-argonne.html The Meuse–Argonne Offensive] at U.S. National Archives and Records Administration
• [https://www.abmc.gov/multimedia/interactives/meuse-argonne-offensive-interactive The Meuse–Argonne Offensive Interactive] at American Battle Monuments Commission
• [https://www.abmc.gov/multimedia/videos/day-history-september-26-1918-meuse-argonne-campaign-begins This Day in History, September 26, 1918: The Meuse-Argonne Campaign Begins] at American Battle Monuments Commission

• [https://www.britannica.com/event/battles-of-the-Meuse-Argonne Battles of the Meuse–Argonne] at Encyclopædia Britannica Online
• {{cite web|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?407070-1/general-pershing-battle-meuse-argonne|title=General Pershing and the Battle of Meuse-Argonne |publisher=C-SPAN|date=March 22, 2016}}
• [http://meuse-argonne.com/ Meuse–Argonne offensive] at meuse-argonne.com
• {{cite web |url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?200077-1/to-conquer-hell|title=To Conquer Hell|publisher=C-SPAN|date=February 6, 2008}}
• {{Internet Archive author|name=Meuse-Argonne Offensive}}

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