Middle judicatory

File:Montgomeryshire and Salop Presbytery meeting at Berriew (1459174).jpg in Berriew in 1940.]]

In English, the term "judicatory" originated in Presbyterian polity, which consists of layers of church courts—rising from local session to presbytery to general assembly—that adjudicate church disciplinary matters.{{cite book |last1=Reifsnyder |first1=Richard W. |editor1-last=Coalter |editor1-first=Milton J. |editor2-last=Mulder |editor2-first=John M. |editor3-last=Weeks |editor3-first=Louis B. |title=The organizational revolution: Presbyterians and American denominationalism |date=1992 |publisher=Westminster John Knox |location=Louisville, Kentucky |page=69 |url=https://archive.org/details/organizationalre00loui/ |access-date=27 August 2024 |chapter=Managing the mission|isbn=978-0-664-25197-0 }} However, the term is used within a variety of Christian traditions to describe their mid-tier organizations.{{cite book |last1=Richey |first1=Russell E. |editor1-last=Lippy |editor1-first=Charles H. |editor2-last=Williams |editor2-first=Peter W. |title=Encyclopedia of religion in America, volume 1 |date=2010 |publisher=CQ Press |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=547–548 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0001unse_r5c3 |access-date=27 August 2024 |chapter=Denominationalism |isbn=978-0-87289-580-5 |quote=Such campaigns disclose yet a third internal system, congregations and regional or middle judicatories. The latter, variously termed association, presbytery, conference, diocese, region, or synod, functions administratively between congregations and the national or international structures and authority. At this level, church officials decide to ordain, hire, and dismiss clergy; conduct problem solving; mount educational, training, and outreach programs; and negotiate denominational style, ethos, and identity. Bishops, presidents, clerks, district superintendents, and their staffs interact with pastors and congregations in quite complex ways, behaving in effect like congregations’ regional service centers. This level deals with charges of clerical misconduct either through denominational judicial procedures or through civil or criminal proceedings, or through both. Findings can sometimes be appealed to other levels, but much denominational judicial, disciplinary, and personnel activity focuses on the regional judicatory.}} Traditions with middle judicatories include Anglicanism,{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Peter Dobkin |editor1-last=Walsh |editor1-first=Andrew |title=Can charitable choice work? Covering religions' impact on urban affairs and social services |date=2001 |publisher=Pew Program on Religion and Public Media |location=Hartford, Connecticut |isbn=1931767025 |page=94 |chapter=Historical perspectives on religion, government and social welfare in America}} Lutheranism,{{rp|5, 7}} Methodism,{{cite book |last1=Willimon |first1=William H. |title=Bishop: the art of questioning authority by an authority in question |date=2012 |publisher=Abingdon Press |location=Nashville, Tennessee |isbn=9781426742293 |page=96 |url=https://archive.org/details/bishopartofquest0000will |access-date=27 August 2024}} Roman Catholicism{{cite news |last1=Zajac |first1=Frances Barsodi |title=Catholics and Lutherans join to commemorate the Reformation |url=https://www.heraldstandard.com/community_life/2017/mar/09/catholics-and-lutherans-join-to-commemorate-the-reformation/ |access-date=27 August 2024 |work=Herald-Standard |date=March 9, 2017}} and some congregationalist communions, such as the United Church of Christ in the United States.{{rp|5, 7}}{{cite web |last1=Child |first1=Virginia Helman |title=Education for faith and spiritual formation among middle-judicatory volunteers in the Connecticut Conference United Church of Christ |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/6e19a5efbca3498e499583c20f6edd8e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y |publisher=Hartford Seminary |access-date=27 August 2024 |format=doctoral dissertation |date=1999 |pages=v-vi}} Depending on the tradition, a judicatory may be called a classis, conference, diocese, district, eparchy, ordinariate, presbytery, synod or another term. Middle judicatories may also be layered, with dioceses being grouped into provinces (as in the Anglican and Roman Catholic traditions),{{cite news |last1=Krumm |first1=John |title=Report to the Episcopal Church on the XII Plenary Session of the Consultation on Church Union |url=https://episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/ENS/ENSpress_release.pl?pr_number=74314 |access-date=24 May 2025 |agency=Diocesan Press Service |publisher=Episcopal Church |date=November 8, 1974 |quote=Middle judicatories are church units between national and local levels, and go under various names in different churches (such as conference, diocese, presbytery, region and province).}}{{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |date=2005 |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=9780816069835 |pages=28–29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC |access-date=14 January 2025}}{{cite book |last1=Ensign-George |first1=Barry |title=Between Congregation and Church: Denomination and Christian Life Together |date=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5z4_DwAAQBAJ |isbn=9780567658364 |page=275 |access-date=14 January 2025}} districts being grouped into annual conferences (as in United Methodism) or presbyteries being grouped into synods (as in the Presbyterian Church (USA), where middle judicatories are known as "mid councils").{{cite web |title=What is a mid council? |url=https://www.pcusa.org/about-pcusa/church-structure/mid-councils-overview |website=About PC(USA) |publisher=Presbyterian Church (USA) |access-date=14 January 2025}}{{cite book |last1=Vallet |first1=Ronald E. |title=The mainline church's funding crisis: issues and possibilities |date=1995 |publisher=W. B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |page=144 |isbn=978-0-8028-4116-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/mainlinechurchsf0000vall/ |access-date=27 August 2024}}

Although some Baptist denominations are organized into conventions and associations, in the Baptist tradition the local congregation is the primary church unit. As a result, not all Baptist conventions are considered middle judicatories.{{cite book |last1=Igleheart |first1=Glenn A. |editor1-last=Boney |editor1-first=William Jerry |editor2-last=Igleheart |editor2-first=Glenn A. |title=Baptists and ecumenism |date=1980 |publisher=Judson Press |location=Valley Force, Pennsylvania |isbn=0817008934 |page=57 |url=https://archive.org/details/baptistsecumenis0000unse |access-date=27 August 2024 |chapter=Ecumenical concerns among Southern Baptists}}

The diocese is an ancient organizational structure that dates back as far as the third century CE. The term originated in the Latin term dioecesis for subdivisions of provinces into administrative units. From its earliest use by Christian churches, a diocese referred to a unit that combined parishes and clergy under the authority of a bishop, who was in turn under the authority of a metropolitan.{{cite book |last1=Tanner |first1=Norman |title=New Short History of the Catholic Church |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury |location=London |isbn=9781441162120 |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rTz3HmuaEEC |access-date=25 May 2025}} An eparchy, derived from the Greek term used for Roman provinces in the eastern empire, likewise referred to a metropolitan bishopric.{{Cite book|editor-last1=Cross|editor-first1=Frank L.|editor-last2=Livingstone|editor-first2=Elizabeth A.|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church|year=2005|orig-year=1957|edition=3rd rev.|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00late |access-date=26 May 2025}} The Protestant Reformation brought new forms of organization, with Anglicans retaining bishops; Lutherans and Methodists retaining bishops in some{{which|date=June 2025}} branches of their traditions; Reformed and Presbyterian churches adopting presbyterian polity; and congregationalist and Baptist churches "locat[ing] ultimate authority in the local church" while participating in regional and national conventions or associations.{{cite book |last=Doe |first=Norman |year=2013 |title=Christian Law: Contemporary Principles |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00692-8 |page=7 |url=https://archive.org/details/christianlawcont0000doen |access-date=26 May 2025}}

While the term "middle judicatory" originated in Presbyterian polity, it came into more common use in the 20th century to describe a wider range of historic church associational forms, primarily but not exclusively among mainline Protestant churches.{{cite book |last1=Richey |first1=Russell E. |title=The foreign missionary enterprise at home: Explorations in American cultural history |date=2003 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |page=76 |isbn=978-0-8173-1245-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/foreignmissionar0000unse/ |access-date=27 August 2024}}{{cite book |last1=Borden |first1=Paul D. |title=Assaulting the gates: Aiming all God's people at the mission field |date=2009 |publisher=Abingdon Press |location=Nashville, Tennessee |isbn=9781426702204 |page=24 |url=https://archive.org/details/assaultinggatesa0000bord/ |access-date=27 August 2024}} The role of judicatories expanded during that time period from handling discipline and ordination to encompass programmatic activities, theological education{{cite book |last1=Rouch |first1=March |editor1-last=Reber |editor1-first=Robert E. |editor2-last=Roberts |editor2-first=D. Bruce |title=A lifelong call to learn: Approaches to continuing education for church leaders |date=2000 |publisher=Abingdon Press |location=Nashville, Tennessee |pages=28–29 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifelongcalltole0000unse |access-date=27 August 2024 |chapter=From yesterday to today in continuing education |isbn=978-0-687-07146-3 |quote=Gradually denominational programming has shifted to middle judicatories, but this has not reversed the trend toward a reduction of programming. A few judicatories, such as the United Methodist North Indiana Annual Conference, still offer a full range of opportunities.}} and church planting coordination,{{cite web |last1=Boshart |first1=David W. |title=Planting Missional Mennonite Churches in Complex Social Planting Missional Mennonite Churches in Complex Social Contexts as the Denomination Undergoes a Paradigm Shift in Contexts as the Denomination Undergoes a Paradigm Shift in Ecclesiology: a Multiple Case Study Ecclesiology: a Multiple Case Study |url=https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1236&context=dissertations |website=Digital Commons @ Andrews University |publisher=Andrews University |access-date=24 May 2025 |pages=21, 53 |format=doctoral dissertation |date=2009}} becoming what the Baptist pastor and church executive Ronald E. Vallet called "strategically important parts of the denominational system."

Some mainline denominations built new forms of middle judicatories during the 20th century. For example, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) moved from a congregationalist to a denominational model in 1968, creating "regions", the Disciples' term for their middle judicatory.{{cite book |last1=Hamm |first1=Richard L. |title=Recreating the church: Leadership for the postmodern age |date=2007 |publisher=Chalice Press |location=St. Louis |isbn=9780827232532 |pages=32–27 |url=https://archive.org/details/recreatingchurch0000hamm |access-date=27 August 2024}}{{cite book |last1=Sprinkle |first1=Stephen |title=Ordination: celebrating the gift of ministry |date=2004 |publisher=Chalice Press |location=St. Louis |page=84 |isbn=978-0-8272-2719-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/ordinationcelebr0000spri/ |access-date=27 August 2024}} In some cases, middle judicatories served as governing bodies for ecumenical and interfaith social services in local areas.{{cite journal |last1=Herzog |first1=Albert A., Jr. |title=Spires, Wheelchairs and Committees: Organizing for Disability Advocacy at the Judicatory Level |journal=Review of Religious Research |date=June 2004 |volume=45 |issue=4 |page=350 |doi=10.2307/3511991 |jstor=3511991 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3511991 |access-date=27 May 2025}}{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Charles R. |editor1-last=Kelley |editor1-first=Arleon |title=A tapestry of justice, service, and unity: Local ecumenism in the United States, 1950-2000 |date=2004 |publisher=National Association of Ecumenical and Interreligious Staff Press |location=Tacoma, Washington |page=134 |url=https://archive.org/details/tapestryofjustic0000unse/ |access-date=27 August 2024 |chapter=Local interfaith ecumenism: Buffalo and Syracuse as case studies|isbn=978-0-9747290-0-8 }}{{cite journal |last1=Takayama |first1=K. Peter |last2=Darnell |first2=Susanne B. |title=The Aggressive Organization and the Reluctant Environment: The Vulnerability of an Inter-Faith Coordinating Agency |journal=Review of Religious Research |date=Summer 1979 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=321–325 |doi=10.2307/3510031 |jstor=3510031 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3510031 |access-date=27 May 2025}} The integration of middle judicatories from different traditions was a major topic of discussion and tension in negotiations over church union in the 20th century, a movement that saw several denominations merge and others discuss varying forms of unity short of full mergers.{{cite book |title=Middle Judicatory Structures and Mission in the COCU Churches: Report of a Survey by the Commission on Structures for Mission of the Consultation on Church Union |date=1974 |publisher=Consultation on Church Union}} According to the United Methodist bishop William Henry Willimon, by the 21st century, some middle judicatories had begun shifting away from confrontational trial-based judicial practices to focus on coaching and conflict resolution techniques. According to Lutheran minister and church executive Robert Bacher, judicatories' function expanded beyond "adjudication"; he said that "in recent years these collections of staff, volunteers, and their governance units have taken on even more important roles with greatly expanded responsibilities."{{cite book |last1=Bacher |first1=Robert |title=Church administration: Programs, process, purpose |date=2007 |publisher=Fortress Press |location=Minneapolis |isbn=9780800637422 |pages=202–203 |url=https://archive.org/details/churchadministra0000bach |access-date=27 August 2024}}

File:Ndokwa Diocesan Synod 2022.jpg in 2022.]]The functions of middle judicatories vary based on different denominations' traditions, but middle judicatories typically make decisions on the ordination and placement of clergy; deliver training and outreach programs; and represent the denomination to the congregation. Consistent with its origins in Presbyterian church courts, middle judicatories are also typically the principal venue for handling issues of clergy discipline. Middle judicatories also often handle matters related to congregational mergers and closure.{{cite book |last1=Bandy |first1=Thomas G. |title=Christian chaos: Revolutionizing the congregation |date=1999 |publisher=Abingdon Press |location=Nashville, Tennessee |page=155 |isbn=978-0-687-02550-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/christianchaosre0000band/ |access-date=27 August 2024}}

Judicatories are usually funded by apportionments or tithes from member congregations.{{cite web |last1=Lummis |first1=Adair T. |title=Connections and Unity Among and Between Congregations, Middle (Regional) Judicatories and Their National Church |url=https://hirr.web.novusinsight.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/researchreport-5.pdf |publisher=Hartford Institute for Religious Research |access-date=27 August 2024}}{{rp|7}} Many middle judicatories use these funds to operate with full- or part-time paid staff, with titles that variously include bishops and assistant bishops, superintendents, executive presbyters, executive ministers, stated clerks and canons. In the mainline Protestant churches, declining attendance and budgets have caused loss of employment at the middle judicatory level.{{cite book |last1=Hamm |first1=Richard L. |title=Recreating the church: Leadership for the postmodern age |date=2007 |publisher=Chalice Press |location=St. Louis |isbn=9780827232532 |url=https://archive.org/details/recreatingchurch0000hamm |access-date=27 August 2024 |page=86}} To help middle judicatories support congregations during an era of shrinking mainline churches, late 20th-century commentators on church polity have called on middle judicatories to focus more on building denser networks of communication among their member congregations and to incorporate local congregational perspectives more effectively in the development of policies.{{cite book |last1=Bandy |first1=Thomas G. |title=Moving off the map |date=1998 |publisher=Abingdon Press |location=Nashville, Tennessee |pages=24–26 |isbn=978-0-687-06800-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/movingoffmapfiel00band/ |access-date=27 August 2024}}{{cite book |last1=Erickson |first1=Theodore H. |editor1-last=Carroll |editor1-first=Jackson W. |title=Small churches are beautiful |date=1977 |publisher=Harper & Row |location=San Francisco |pages=166–174 |url=https://archive.org/details/smallchurchesare0000unse/ |access-date=27 August 2024 |chapter=New expectations: Denominational collaboration with small churches}}

The religion scholar Adair Lummis wrote that effective judicatory operation generally requires greater engagement by judicatory officials (bishops, district superintendents and executive presbyters) at the congregational level, greater choice in which denominational programs congregations can support through their judicatory funding, direct congregational support for critical needs and clear communication about the effects of congregations' contributions to the judicatory body.{{rp|11-12}} Likewise, the Methodist religion scholar Jackson W. Carroll said that middle judicatories' role is "best fulfilled when the integrity of the church is respected and envisioning for the future is shared."{{cite book |last1=Carroll |first1=Jackson W. |editor1-last=Carroll |editor1-first=Jackson W. |title=Small churches are beautiful |date=1977 |publisher=Harper & Row |location=San Francisco |page=xiv |url=https://archive.org/details/smallchurchesare0000unse |access-date=27 August 2024 |chapter=Introduction}}

File:Fellowship at 2018 CANA East Synod.jpg.]]

Some scholars and observers of religion have questioned the effectiveness of middle judicatories in supporting the local church. Ronald J. Allen, a Disciples of Christ minister and professor of preaching, has compared middle judicatories unfavorably to the leadership model presented in the Acts of the Apostles, stating that "ossification" sometimes impedes a missional focus by leaders, who instead focus on preserving the institution as an institution and accruing power in complicated leadership structures.{{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Ronald J. |title=Acts of the apostles |date=2013 |publisher=Fortress Press |location=Minneapolis |page=61 |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles0000alle |access-date=27 August 2024}} The United Church of Canada minister Thomas G. Bandy has argued that, when functioning poorly, middle judicatories "build processes of inquisition and censorship" and that they can impose "institutional rules" that curtail innovation and suffocate "transforming congregations" in environments of organizational decline. He has also said that the structure of the middle judicatory, set between a larger church and individual congregations, can be "easily swayed by emerging regional and world issues," forcing congregations away from local issues and pushing changes at the churchwide level before previous priorities have been achieved. In denominations that have significant theological diversity, survey research has found that cooperation at the judicatory level was hampered and engagement by the laity was depressed.{{rp|2}}

• List of Church of England dioceses
• List of dioceses of the Anglican Church of Canada
• Ecclesiastical provinces and dioceses of the Episcopal Church
• List of dioceses of the Anglican Church in North America
• List of dioceses of the Philippine Independent Church

• Eparchies of the Georgian Orthodox Church
• List of the dioceses of the Orthodox Church in America
• Eparchies and Metropolitanates of the Russian Orthodox Church
• List of eparchies of the Serbian Orthodox Church

• List of ELCA synods
• Districts of the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod
• List of dioceses, deaneries and parishes of the Church of Sweden

• Conferences in Methodism

• List of Church of Scotland synods and presbyteries
• List of Presbyterian Church (USA) synods and presbyteries

• Yearly Meetings

• List of Catholic dioceses (structured view)
• List of eparchies of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church

• Districts of the Unitarian Universalist Association

• List of regional councils of the United Church of Canada

• Ecclesiastical polity

{{reflist}}

Category:Types of Christian organization