Migratory locust

The migratory locust is polyphenic. It transitions between two main phenotypes in response to population density; the solitary phase and the gregarious phase. As the density of the population increases the locust transforms progressively from the solitary phase towards the gregarious phase with intermediate phases:

{{block indent|1=Solitaire = solitary phase → {{lang|la|transiens congregans}} (intermediate form) → gregarious phase → {{lang|la|transiens dissocians}} (intermediate form) → solitaire = solitary phase.}}

Pigmentation and size of the migratory locust vary according to its phase (gregarious or solitary form) and its age. Gregarious nymphs have a yellow to orange covering with black spots; solitary nymphs are green or brown. The gregarious adult is brownish with yellow, the latter colour becoming more intense and extensive on maturation. The solitary adult is brown with varying extent of green colour depending on the colour of the vegetation. Gregarious adults vary in size between 40 and 60 mm according to the sex; they are smaller than the solitary adults.

The phase transition may be mediated by DNA methylation in the brain. Expression of the DNA methyltrasferase gene Dnmt3 is high in the brain of the gregarious form, decreases in gregarious locusts when they are isolated, and increases in solitary locusts when they are crowded. Knock-down reduces phase-related locomotor activity.{{cite journal |last1= Hou|first1= Li|last2= Wang|first2= Xuesong|last3= Yang|first3= Pengcheng|last4= Li|first4= Beibei|last5= Lin|first5= Zhe|last6= Kang|first6= Le|last7= Wang|first7= Xianhui|title= DNA methyltransferase 3 participates in behavioral phase change in the migratory locust|journal= Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|date= 2020|volume= 121|pages= 103374|doi= 10.1016/j.ibmb.2020.103374|pmid= 32283278|s2cid= 215758648|url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965174820300631|url-access= subscription}} Transcriptionally, Dnmt3 is linked with phase-core transcriptional factor, hormone receptor HR3.

Increased extracellular potassium was found to cause membrane depolarization in muscle activating nerves by Hoyle 1953. This then in turn reduces the nerve potential, with the final result of reducing the force output of said muscle. He also found chronic cold temperatures to increase K{{sup|+}} in the haemolymph. These changes affect L. migratoria{{'}}s nerve states because {{endash}} as with insects and animals in general {{endash}} nerve cells have a high K permeability, which allows K{{sup|+}}'s transmembrane distribution to determine most cellular diffusion potential. This is shaping and will continue to shape the distribution of L. migratoria{{'}}s range under climate change.{{cite journal | last1=Overgaard | first1=Johannes | last2=MacMillan | first2=Heath A. | title=The Integrative Physiology of Insect Chill Tolerance | journal=Annual Review of Physiology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=79 | issue=1 | date=2017-02-10 | issn=0066-4278 | doi=10.1146/annurev-physiol-022516-034142 | pages=187–208| pmid=27860831 | doi-access=free }}

File:Die Gartenlaube (1875) b 585.jpg

Locusts are highly mobile, and usually fly with the wind at a speed of about {{convert|15|to|20|km/h}}. Swarms can travel 5 to 130 km or more in a day. Locust swarms can vary from less than one square kilometre to several hundred square kilometres with 40 to 80 million individuals per square kilometre. An adult locust can consume its own weight (several grams) in fresh food per day. For every million locusts, one ton of food is eaten.

In Africa, the last serious widespread plague of L. m. migratorioides occurred from 1928 to 1942. Since then, environmental transformations have made the development of swarms from the African migratory locust unlikely. Nevertheless, potential outbreaks are constantly monitored as plagues can be devastating.

The Malagasy migratory locust (L. m. capito) still regularly swarms (roughly twice every ten years). The desert locust, which is very similar to the African migratory locust, remains a major threat too.

Locust survey and control are primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture in locust-affected countries and are operations undertaken by national locust units. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations provides information on the general locust situation to all interested countries and gives warnings and forecasts to those countries in danger of invasion.

The migratory locust is an edible insect.{{cite journal |last=Oonincx |first=Dennis G. A. B. |author2=van Itterbeeck, Joost |author3=Heetkamp, Marcel J. W. |author4=van den Brand, Henry |author5=van Loon, Joop J. A. |author6=van Huis, Arnold |author7=Hansen, Immo A. |title=An Exploration on Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Production by Insect Species Suitable for Animal or Human Consumption |journal=PLOS ONE |date=29 December 2010 |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=e14445 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0014445 |pmid=21206900 |pmc=3012052|bibcode=2010PLoSO...514445O |doi-access=free }}[http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/153905/1/chap15.pdf Barsics, F., 2010. L'alimentation des Populations locales de Madagascar productrices de Vers à Soie. - Univ. de Liège.: 1-84.] In Europe, the migratory locust is officially approved for the use in food in Switzerland (since May 2017).Bundesamt für Lebensmittelsicherheit und Veterinärwesen (2017-04-28): [https://www.blv.admin.ch/blv/de/home/lebensmittel-und-ernaehrung/lebensmittelsicherheit/einzelne-lebensmittel/insekten.html#-399311545 "Insects as food"] (German only) On 2 July 2021, the European Food Safety Agency published a scientific opinion stating that the consumption of migratory locust in frozen, dried or ground state is safe for humans.EFSA (2 July 2021): [https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6667 Safety of frozen and dried formulations from migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283]. In: EFSA Journal. Vol. 19, Issue 7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6667. On 12 November 2021, the EU member states gave their green light for the EU Commission to authorize the placing on the market of migratory locust as a food. This is one of the final steps in the novel food authorization procedure. As a next step, the Commission will now adopt a legal act.European Commission (2 November 2021): [https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/novel-food/authorisations/approval-second-insect-novel-food_de Approval of second insect as a Novel Food].

File:Locusta m. migratorioides female.jpg

File:Locusta migratoria migratorioides male.jpg

L. migratoria is found over a vast geographic area, and its range covers many different ecological zones. Because of this, numerous subspecies have been described; however, not all experts agree on the validity of some of these subspecies.{{cite journal|last1=Chapuis|first1=M-P.|last2=Lecoq|first2=M.|last3=Michalakis|first3=Y.|last4=Loiseau|first4=A.|author-link4=Annick Loiseau|last5=Sword|first5=G. A.|last6=Piry|first6=S.|last7=Estoup|first7=A.|date=1 August 2008|title=Do outbreaks affect genetic population structure? A worldwide survey in a pest plagued by microsatellite null alleles|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=17|issue=16|pages=3640–3653|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03869.x|pmid=18643881|s2cid=4185861}}

• L. m. burmana Ramme, 1951
• L. m. capito Saussure, 1884 (Malagasy migratory locust: Madagascar)
• L. m. cinerascens Fabricius, 1781 (Italy, Spain)
• L. m. migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758) (europe)
• Locusta migratoria manilensis (Meyen, 1875)
• L. m. migratorioides (Fairmaire & L.J. Reiche, 1849) (African migratory locust: Africa and Atlantic islands)
• L. m. tibetensis Chen, Yonglin, 1963
• L. m. danica (Linnaeus, 1767) = L. m. migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
• L. m. gallica Remaudičre, 1947 = L. m. migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
• L. m. solitaria Carthy, 1955 = L. m. migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758)

Other species of Orthoptera that display gregarious and migratory behaviour are called locusts. This includes:

• American locust, Schistocerca americana
• Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera
• Bombay locust, Nomadacris succincta
• Brown locust, Locustana pardalina
• Desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria
• Egyptian locust, Anacridium aegyptium
• Italian locust, Calliptamus italicus
• Moroccan locust, Dociostaurus maroccanus
• Red locust, Nomadacris septemfasciata
• Rocky Mountain locust, Melanoplus spretus – extinct
• Sahelian tree locusts, Anacridium melanorhodon
• Spur-throated locust, Austracris guttulosa (note: "spur-throated grasshoppers/locusts" may also refer to spp. in other genera)
• Sudan plague locust, Aiolopus simulatrix

The Senegalese grasshopper (Oedaleus senegalensis) also often displays locust-like behaviour in the Sahel region.

Locusta migratoria L1.jpg|First instar nymph (gregarious)

Locusta migratoria L2 and L4.jpg|Second and fourth instar nymphs (gregarious)

Locusta migratoria L3.jpg|Third instar nymphs (gregarious)

Locusta migratoria L4.jpg|Fourth instar nymph (gregarious)

Locusta migratoria part of hopper band.jpg|Part of a hopper band in Kazakhstan

Locusta migratoria hopper band4.jpg|Hopper band in Kazakhstan

• 2013 Madagascar locust infestation
• Australian Plague Locust Commission (APLC)

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite book |last=Walker |first=Annette |title=The Reed Handbook of Common New Zealand Insects |year=2000 |publisher=Reed |location=Auckland |isbn=978-0-7900-0718-2 |author2=Heath, Eric}}
• {{cite book |title=Locust Handbook |year=1988 |publisher=Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute |location=London |isbn=978-0-85954-232-6 |edition=2nd |editor=Steedman, Alison}}

{{Commons category|Locusta migratoria}}

• [http://www.fao.org/NEWS/GLOBAL/LOCUSTS/LOCFAQ.htm Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030004352/http://www.fao.org/News/GLOBAL/LOCUSTS/LOCFAQ.htm |date=2004-10-30 }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20050501042449/http://www.univ-pau.fr/~degreg/site_grasshopper/site_anglais/phases.htm#PP The phenomenon of phases]
• [https://www.biolib.cz/cz/formsearch/?action=execute&searcharea=1&string=locusta+migratoria Biolib]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930215432/http://www.faunaeur.org/full_results.php?id=234721 Fauna Europaea]
• Genus Locusta at [http://orthoptera.speciesfile.org/Common/basic/Taxa.aspx?TaxonNameID=51512 Orthoptera Species File on Line]
• [http://bio.acousti.ca/taxonomy/term/67 Sound recordings of Migratory Locust at BioAcoustica]

{{Taxonbar|from1=Q1059580|from2=Q15122569}}

Category:Oedipodinae

Category:Orthoptera of Africa

Category:Orthoptera of Asia

Category:Orthoptera of Europe

Category:Orthoptera of Oceania

Category:Insects of Australia

Category:Acrididae of New Zealand

Category:Insects described in 1758

Category:Edible insects

Category:Animal migration

Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Category:Insect pests of millets