Mining in ancient Rome
{{Short description|Mining practices in ancient Rome}}
{{use dmy dates |date=March 2023}}
File:Rosia Montana Roman Gold Mines 2011 - Small Entrance Close Up.jpg]]
Mining in ancient Rome utilized hydraulic mining and shaft mining techniques in combination with equipment such as the Archimedes screw. The materials they produced were used to craft pipes or construct buildings. Quarries were often built through trial trenching and they used tools such as wedges to break the rock apart, which would then be transported using cairns and slipways. Mines typically used slaves and lower-class individuals to extract and process ore. Usually their working conditions were dangerous and inhumane, resulting in frequent accidents and even suicidal ideation. These areas were divided into districts and were regulated by several laws such as the lex metalli vispascensis.
Technology
File:Panorámica de Las Médulas.jpg view of Las Médulas, a gold-mining site in Spain where the Romans used sluicing techniques]]
= Hydraulic mining =
The Romans used hushing, a method of hydraulic mining that uses water to erode the rock.{{Cite book |last1=Jacobs |first1=James A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z81CAwAAQBAJ&dq=surface+mining+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA369 |title=Acid Mine Drainage, Rock Drainage, and Acid Sulfate Soils: Causes, Assessment, Prediction, Prevention, and Remediation |last2=Lehr |first2=Jay H. |last3=Testa |first3=Stephen M. |date=2014-04-28 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-48786-0 |pages=369 |language=en}} This would be accomplished by using holes to funnel water into the area, thus breaking it up. The water was supplied to the area through aqueducts,{{Cite book |last=Ritter |first=Rich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HX87DwAAQBAJ&dq=hushing+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PT76 |title=Gathering of the Clans: A Magnificent Epic of Seven Tragically Entangled Lives |date=2017-05-01 |publisher=Publication Consultants |isbn=978-1-59433-709-3 |language=en}} and it would then be stored in a tank, which would flood the area when opened. Following this process, fire was used to heat the rock, which was subsequently quenched with water, thus cracking the rock through thermal shock.{{Cite web |title=Mining |url=http://romans-in-britain.org.uk/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619232457/http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/raw_mining.htm |archive-date=June 19, 2008 |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=Romans in Britain}} The Romans also used ground sluicing, which is the use of tunneling equipment or excavation equipment to mine stream beds.{{Cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gm7lAgAAQBAJ&dq=sluicing+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA148 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Economy |date=2012-11-08 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-49556-2 |pages=148 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Kalomiris |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQYEAAAQBAJ&dq=shaft+mining+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PT208 |title=The Vedic Alchemist: Better Liberation Through Chemistry |date=2021-01-20 |publisher=Balboa Press |isbn=978-1-9822-5675-3 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Hirt |first=Alfred Michael |url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199572878.001.0001/acprof-9780199572878 |title=Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27 BC-AD 235 |date=2010-03-25 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-957287-8 |pages=1–66 |language=en}}
= Shaft sinking =
Shaft sinking was the most dangerous and most difficult form of mining in ancient Rome. Due to its high cost, it was only used to collect the most valuable metals in Roman society. This technique involved digging tunnels underground, allowing workers to extract the ore. Access to these mines and tunnels was provided by shafts which were usually around {{convert|3-6|sqft}} and lined with wood. They also served as ventilation. Roman mines were notorious for their poor ventilation systems. Poisonous gasses often poured into the mines, and noxious air was common in silver mines.{{Cite book |last=Ermatinger |first=James W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9rI6CgAAQBAJ&dq=sluicing+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA124 |title=The World of Ancient Rome: A Daily Life Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Daily Life Encyclopedia |date=2015-08-11 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-2908-6 |pages=123–126 |language=en}}
= Underground mining =
Underground mining in ancient Rome required the usage of tunnels and shafts. Before those necessities could be constructed water needed to be extracted from these areas, which would be accomplished through hand lifting, or the usage of tunnels such as the Archimedes' screw or the water wheel. Adits were used as entrances to the mine, and sources of drainage and ventilation.{{Cite book |last1=Kloprogge |first1=J. Theo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGa8DwAAQBAJ&dq=hushing+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA55 |title=The Periodic Table: Nature's Building Blocks: An Introduction to the Naturally Occurring Elements, Their Origins and Their Uses |last2=Ponce |first2=Concepcion P. |last3=Loomis |first3=Tom |date=2020-11-18 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-821538-8 |pages=54–55 |language=en}} Stoping was a technique the Romans used to dig out of all the ore and leave behind an open space. Once the ore had been dug out trip hammers powered by water were used to crush it,{{Sfn|Reden|2021|p=401-404}} and mercury was used to separate gold from surrounding materials.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_GU-EuSfVBUC&dq=Mining+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA981-IA42 |title=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=2001 |publisher=U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences |language=en}} Following this, baskets were used to collect the ore and transport it to an area where it was processed.
= Surface mining and strip mining =
Surface mining was used by the ancient Romans when the rock embedded in the surface was visible. They used the technique of panning in areas where a stream had eroded the rock. Pliny wrote that this technique was useful for finding the purest form of gold. It was also useful for finding ore veins that led back to the ground or the mountains and for small mining operations. The Romans also used strip mining, whereby they would remove the exposed ore from a hill, using water to remove the soil and material. File:Dolabra de Besomaño.jpg
= Tools =
Ancient Roman miners used double-sided hammers, broad sided pickaxes,{{Cite book |last=Rowland |first=Ingrid D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIFXAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Pickaxe%22+OR+%22Pickaxes%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PT192 |title=From Pompeii: The Afterlife of a Roman Town |date=2014-03-24 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-41653-6 |language=en}} and picks that were usually made of iron.{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=J. Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSWVAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Pickaxe%22+OR+%22Pickaxes%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PP139 |title=Environmental Problems of the Greeks and Romans: Ecology in the Ancient Mediterranean |date=2014-02-15 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-1212-2 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last1=Romero |first1=Margarita Sánchez |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQBDCwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Pickaxe%22+OR+%22Pickaxes%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PT130 |title=Children, Spaces and Identity |last2=Garcia |first2=Eva Alarcón |last3=Jiménez |first3=Gonzalo Aranda |date=2015-10-31 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78297-936-4 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=J. Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4OiVAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22pick%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA134 |title=Environmental Problems of the Greeks and Romans: Ecology in the Ancient Mediterranean |last2=Hughes |first2=Johnson Donald |date=2014-02-15 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-1210-8 |pages=134 |language=en}} Child laborers in ancient mines possibly carried baskets that were used to transport materials. Another tool used by miners was the dolabra fossoria, which was capable of being used as a pickaxe or as a mattock.{{Cite book |last=Ermatinger |first=James W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9rI6CgAAQBAJ&dq=%22pick%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA686 |title=The World of Ancient Rome: A Daily Life Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Daily Life Encyclopedia |date=2015-08-11 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-2908-6 |language=en}}Cowan, Ross (Nov 2021). "Tales of the Axe". Ancient Warfare Magazine. 15/2: 9 Miners also wore heavy belts to carry their tools and materials.{{Cite book |last=Ferris |first=Iain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlguEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Pickaxe%22+OR+%22Pickaxes%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PT129 |title=The Dignity of Labour: Work and Identity in the Roman World |date=2021-01-15 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |isbn=978-1-4456-8422-2 |language=en}}
Materials and usage
= Lead =
File:Inscripted lead pipe (Ancient Roman) - Museo Nazionale di Ravenna - Ravenna 2016.jpg]]
Roman mines supplied the empire with its currency. The production of currency was correlated with a significantly increased amount of lead. During periods of stability and high coin production, there was a high amount of lead production. However, during periods of crisis, such as the fall of the Roman Republic there was a decreased rate of coin production, and therefore a reduced rate of lead production.{{Cite book |last=Reden |first=Sitta von |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmZUEAAAQBAJ&dq=Mining+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PT518 |title=Handbook of Ancient Afro-Eurasian Economies: Volume 2: Local, Regional, and Imperial Economies |date=2021-12-20 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-060493-1 |pages=401–404 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Revuelta |first=Manuel Bustillo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3syDwAAQBAJ&dq=shaft+mining+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA11 |title=Mineral Resources: From Exploration to Sustainability Assessment |date=2017-08-23 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-58760-8 |pages=9–10 |language=en}} Lead was also used to make water pipes and bullae.{{Cite book |last1=Hecker |first1=Sharon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiUfEAAAQBAJ&dq=lead+material+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA2 |title=Lead in Modern and Contemporary Art |last2=Bottinelli |first2=Silvia |date=2021-03-25 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-19646-9 |pages=2 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Hess-Kosa |first=Kathleen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjsPEAAAQBAJ&dq=lead+material+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA7 |title=Building Materials: Product Emission and Combustion Health Hazards |date=2017-04-07 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4987-1494-5 |pages=7 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=DK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbG1DwAAQBAJ&dq=lead+material+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA126 |title=Pocket Genius: Ancient Rome: Facts at Your Fingertips |date=2016-01-19 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-7440-2122-6 |pages=126 |language=en}} The high amounts of lead in ancient Rome led to concurrently high amounts of lead poisoning.{{Cite book |last1=Roth |first1=Hannah Rae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EawlEAAAQBAJ&dq=lead+material+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA110 |title=The Green Building Materials Manual: A Reference to Environmentally Sustainable Initiatives and Evaluation Methods |last2=Lewis |first2=Meghan |last3=Hancock |first3=Liane |date=2021-03-25 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-64888-6 |pages=110 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Tschen-Emmons |first=James B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SziaBAAAQBAJ&dq=lead+material+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA161 |title=Artifacts from Ancient Rome |date=2014-09-30 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-620-3 |pages=161 |language=en}}
= Metals and stone =
Metals were used as a medicine for diseases such as sarcomas, rashes, and leprosy. They could also be used as a deodorant. Alumen was a liquid substance used to bind dyes to fabrics, making it one of the most popular and effective tools for painting.{{Cite book |last1=Dallai |first1=Luisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J6H_DwAAQBAJ&dq=Mining+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA195 |title=I paesaggi dell'allume. Archeologia della produzione ed economia di rete / Alum landscapes. Archaeology of production and network economy |last2=Bianchi |first2=Giovanna |last3=Stasolla |first3=Francesca Romana |date=2020-07-31 |publisher=All’Insegna del Giglio |isbn=978-88-7814-990-8 |pages=195–198 |language=it}}{{Cite book |last=Jester |first=Thomas C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kn9DBAAAQBAJ&dq=Alunem++ancient+Rome&pg=PA13 |title=Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation |date=2014-08-01 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-325-5 |pages=13 |language=en}} Roman surgeons also applied alum to wounds to heal them.{{Cite book |last=Hasan |first=Heather |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-YtoootICgC&dq=Alunem++ancient+Rome&pg=PA6 |title=Aluminum |date=2006-08-15 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc |isbn=978-1-4042-0705-9 |pages=6 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=McCormick |first=Anita Louise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ghBiDwAAQBAJ&dq=Alunem++ancient+Rome&pg=PA8 |title=Aluminum |date=2018-07-15 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-9902-9 |pages=8 |language=en}} This method worked because it would dry the wounds and draw the tissues together, allowing them to heal easier.{{Cite book |last=Farndon |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYBh3fBQrVwC&dq=Alunem++ancient+Rome&pg=PA5 |title=Aluminum |date=2001 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-0947-2 |pages=5 |language=en}} Aluminum was also mixed with water to create cement.{{Cite book |last1=Perkins |first1=Dexter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eTSoDwAAQBAJ&dq=aluminum+material+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA419 |title=Earth Materials: Components of a Diverse Planet |last2=Henke |first2=Kevin R. |last3=Simon |first3=Adam C. |last4=Yarbrough |first4=Lance D. |date=2019-07-24 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-59119-8 |pages=419 |language=en}} Most stone was produced locally as it was typically expensive to transport.{{Cite book |last1=Adkins |first1=Lesley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=Quarry+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA369 |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome |last2=Adkins |first2=Roy A. |last3=Adkins |first3=Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. |date=2014-05-14 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7482-2 |pages=369 |language=en}} According to the writer Vitruvius Roman quarries produced many varieties of stone, including red and black tufa, as well as white or soft stone.{{Cite book |last=Malacrino |first=Carmelo G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Gfk34wJ8-kC&q=Quarry+in+ancient+Rome |title=Constructing the Ancient World: Architectural Techniques of the Greeks and Romans |date=2010 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-016-2 |pages=20 |language=en}} The material quarries produced was used in construction.{{Cite book |last1=Herz |first1=N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3fyCAAAQBAJ&q=Quarry+in+ancient+Rome |title=Classical Marble: Geochemistry, Technology, Trade |last2=Waelkens |first2=Marc |date=2013-04-17 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-94-015-7795-3 |pages=85 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last1=Planet |first1=Lonely |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sT5KDwAAQBAJ&dq=Quarry+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PT390 |title=Lonely Planet Sardinia |last2=Clark |first2=Gregor |last3=Christiani |first3=Kerry |last4=Garwood |first4=Duncan |date=2018-01-01 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-78701-237-0 |language=en}}
Types
= Quarries =
File:Roman open pit mine (3253813090).jpg in Slovenia]]
The Romans usually built quarries near the seas or rivers.{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=J. B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iznJ_d6mQagC&dq=Quarry+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA285 |title=Rivers and the Power of Ancient Rome |date=2012 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-3480-0 |pages=285 |language=en}} Upon finding an adequate place for a quarry, the rock was withered away, usually through trial trenching. Afterwards, a line of holes would be chiseled into the rock surface, and wedges would proceed to be inserted into these holes, which were then used to pull the rock apart. The workers would proceed to shape the area with stone blocks. Ancient Roman quarries used stone cairns to supply the material necessary for slipway ramps, which were used to access the quarry and carry out the mined material. Cranes may have also been used to drag material out of quarries. Camels, donkeys, wagons, or ships may have been used as work animals to assist the miner's efforts. The workers may have slept, relaxed, and possibly lived in huts that were placed by the quarries. One quarry has a village of 16 huts, 15 of which are organized in a circle. Another quarry used an L-shaped building with many rooms, and 5 multi-room sections. This building likely served as a dining area and a social area for the workers and administrators of the quarry. Some quarries had watchtowers, which were likely used for long-distance communication or to watch over the labor of prisoners. Forts, temples, baths, and cemeteries were present in the quarry at Wadi Abu Ma'amel. In this quarry, the slipway routes ended in a flat pedestal, and chippings of black porphyry covered the loading ramp.
= Mines =
Mines in ancient Rome gathered unprocessed metal and would then proceed to smelt it. Metal was one of the most important materials. It was used for crafts, construction, weapons, tools, and currency. Only low-status individuals or slaves worked in ancient Roman mines due to the high amounts of danger involved in their job.{{Cite book |last=Baker |first=Jill L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3xqDwAAQBAJ&dq=shaft+mining+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PT84 |title=Technology of the Ancient Near East: From the Neolithic to the Early Roman Period |date=2018-10-10 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-18809-8 |language=en}} The Romans had a punishment named damnatio ad metalla,{{Cite book |last1=Wainwright |first1=Matthew Coneys |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9KUPEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22slaves%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA314 |title=A Companion to Religious Minorities in Early Modern Rome |last2=Michelson |first2=Emily |date=2020-12-15 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-44349-5 |pages=314 |language=en}} which condemned slaves and criminals to work in mines.{{Cite book |last=Francese |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gl5T47CvuDsC&dq=Mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA149 |title=Ancient Rome in So Many Words |date=2007 |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-1153-8 |pages=187 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=Brian K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agyhCwAAQBAJ&q=mines+in+ancient+Rome |title=Daily Life in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook |date=2016-02-11 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |isbn=978-1-58510-796-4 |pages=101 |language=en}} Their conditions were dangerous and miserable, usually resulting in death. Many mining slaves wished to die due to the horrible conditions in these mines.{{Cite book |last1=Dillon |first1=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ce3WAQAAQBAJ&dq=Mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA311 |title=Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook |last2=Garland |first2=Lynda |author2-link=Lynda Garland |date=2013-10-28 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-76143-0 |pages=311 |language=en}} Child slaves were common in mines as they were considered useful for crawling through narrow spaces.{{Cite book |last1=Tames |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1QJyh6g6YIC&dq=%22slaves%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA31 |title=Ancient Roman Children |last2=Williams |first2=Brian |date=2003 |publisher=Capstone Classroom |isbn=978-1-4034-0518-0 |pages=31 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Laes |first=Christian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxo5kMPLoagC&dq=%22Pickaxe%22+OR+%22Pickaxes%22+mines+in+ancient+Rome&pg=PA213 |title=Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within |date=2011-03-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89746-4 |pages=213 |language=en}}
Administration
During the Roman Empire mines and quarries were organized into districts. They were governed by the lex metallis dicta, a law that dictated the rules and regulations of the mines and the punishments for violating them. Slaves who had stolen ore were flogged and prohibited from continuing to work in the mines, freedmen had their property confiscated and lost the privilege of working in the mines. In the case of sabotage, both groups would be banned from the mines. The lex metalli vispascensis, another law governing the mines allows for the collection of fees and gives certain groups the ability to monopolize their industry. Toll stations may have been placed around mining sites to mark their borders, collect fines, and manage the traffic and trade in the mine.