Mongol invasions and conquests

The Mongol Empire developed in the course of the 13th century through a series of victorious campaigns throughout Eurasia. At its height, it stretched from the Pacific to Central Europe. It was later known as the largest contiguous land empire of all time. In contrast with later "empires of the sea" such as the European colonial powers, the Mongol Empire was a land power, fueled by the grass-foraging Mongol cavalry and cattle.{{efn|"Of necessity, the Mongols did most of their conquering and plundering during the warmer seasons, when there was sufficient grass for their herds. [...] Fuelled by grass, the Mongol empire could be described as solar-powered; it was an empire of the land. Later empires, such as the British, moved by ship and were wind-powered, empires of the sea. The American empire, if it is an empire, runs on oil and is an empire of the air."{{cite magazine |title=Invaders |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/invaders-3 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=18 April 2005 |access-date=12 February 2022 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612220230/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/invaders-3 |url-status=live }}}} Thus most Mongol conquest and plundering took place during the warmer seasons, when there was sufficient grazing for their herds. The rise of the Mongols was preceded by 15 years of wet and warm weather conditions from 1211 to 1225 that allowed favourable conditions for the breeding of horses, which greatly assisted their expansion.{{cite journal |last1=Pederson |first1=Neil |last2=Hessl |first2=Amy E. |last3=Baatarbileg |first3=Nachin |last4=Anchukaitis |first4=Kevin J. |last5=Di Cosmo |first5=Nicola |title=Pluvials, droughts, the Mongol Empire, and modern Mongolia |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=25 March 2014 |volume=111 |issue=12 |pages=4375–4379 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1318677111 |pmid=24616521 |pmc=3970536 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.4375P |doi-access=free }}

As the Mongol Empire began to fragment from 1260, conflict between the Mongols and Eastern European polities continued for centuries. Mongols continued to rule China into the 14th century under the Yuan dynasty, while Mongol rule in Persia persisted into the 15th century under the Timurid Empire. In the Indian subcontinent, the later Mughal Empire survived into the 19th century.

{{main|Mongol conquest of Central Asia}}

File:Bataille de vâliyân (1221).jpeg (Spring of 1221) during the invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire]]

Genghis Khan forged the initial Mongol Empire in Central Asia, starting with the unification of the nomadic tribes of the Merkits, Tatars, Keraites, Turks, Naimans and Mongols. The Buddhist Uighurs of Qocho surrendered and joined the empire. He then continued expansion via conquest of the Qara Khitai{{cite journal |last1=Sinor |first1=Denis |title=Western Information on the Kitans and Some Related Questions |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=April 1995 |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=262–269 |doi=10.2307/604669 |jstor=604669 }} and of the Khwarazmian Empire.

Large areas of Islamic Central Asia and northeastern Persia were seriously depopulated,[http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/asia/western/AD1250-1500 World Timelines – Western Asia – AD 1250–1500 Later Islamic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202232313/http://worldtimelines.org.uk/world/asia/western/AD1250-1500 |date=2010-12-02 }} as every city or town that resisted the Mongols was destroyed. Each soldier was given a quota of enemies to execute according to circumstances. For example, after the conquest of Urgench, each Mongol warrior – in an army of perhaps two tumens (20,000 troops) – was required to execute 24 people, or nearly half a million people per said army."[https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm Central Asian world cities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118121401/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |date=2012-01-18 }}", University of Washington.

Against the Alans and the Cumans (Kipchaks), the Mongols used divide-and-conquer tactics by first warning the Cumans to end their support of the Alans, whom they then defeated,{{cite journal |last1=Halperin |first1=Charles J. |title=The Kipchak Connection: The Ilkhans, the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |date=2000 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=229–245 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00007205 |jstor=1559539 |s2cid=162439703 }} before rounding on the Cumans.{{cite journal |last1=Sinor |first1=Denis |title=The Mongols in the West |journal=Journal of Asian History |date=1999 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–44 |jstor=41933117 }} The Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces and known as the Asud, with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" that was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers. Mongols and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former state of Qocho and in Besh Balikh established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi.{{cite book|author=Morris Rossabi|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA255|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04562-0|pages=255–|access-date=2020-11-01|archive-date=2024-01-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080054/https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA255#v=snippet&q=alan%20guard%20mongols&f=false|url-status=live}}

During the Mongol attack on the Middle East ruled by the Mamluk Sultanate, most of the Mamluk military was composed of Kipchaks and the Golden Horde's supply of Kipchak fighters replenished the Mamluk armies and helped them fight off the Mongols.

Hungary became a refuge for fleeing Cumans.{{cite journal |last1=Howorth |first1=H. H. |title=On the Westerly Drifting of Nomades, from the Fifth to the Nineteenth Century. Part III. The Comans and Petchenegs |journal=The Journal of the Ethnological Society of London |date=1870 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=83–95 |jstor=3014440 }}

The decentralized, stateless Kipchaks only converted to Islam after the Mongol conquest, unlike the centralized Karakhanid entity comprising the Yaghma, Qarluqs, and Oghuz who converted earlier to world religions.{{cite journal |last1=Golden |first1=Peter B. |title=Religion among the Qípčaqs of Medieval Eurasia |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |date=1998 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=180–237 |jstor=41928154 }}

The Mongol conquest of the Kipchaks led to a merged society with a Mongol ruling class over a Kipchak-speaking populace which came to be known as Tatar, and which eventually absorbed Armenians, Italians, Greeks, and Crimean Goths in Crimea, the origin of the current Crimean Tatars.{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Brian Glyn |title=The Ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars. An Historical Reinterpretation |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=2001 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=329–348 |doi=10.1017/S1356186301000311 |jstor=25188176 |s2cid=162929705 }}

File:Bagdad1258.jpg in 1258.]]

{{main|Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia|Mongol invasions of the Levant|Mongol invasions of Anatolia|l2 = the Levant|Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongol invasions of Georgia|l3 = Anatolia|l4 = Khwarezmian Empire|l5 = Georgia|Mongol campaign against the Nizaris|l6 = the Nizaris of Alamut|Siege of Baghdad}}

The Mongols conquered, by battle or voluntary surrender, the areas of present-day Iran, Iraq, the Caucasus, and parts of Syria and Turkey, with further Mongol raids reaching southwards into Palestine as far as Gaza in 1260 and 1300. The major battles were the siege of Baghdad, when the Mongols sacked the city which had been the center of Islamic power for 500 years and the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 in southeastern Galilee, when the Muslim Bahri Mamluks were able to defeat the Mongols and decisively halt their advance for the first time. One thousand North Chinese engineer squads accompanied the Mongol Hulagu Khan during his conquest of the Middle East.{{efn|"This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulagu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance."{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&q=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&pg=PA510 |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Vol. II, L–Z, index |editor=Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach |access-date=2011-11-28 |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |page=510 |archive-date=2024-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080054/https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&q=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&pg=PA510#v=snippet&q=mongol%20invasion%20hungary%20chinese%20gunpowder&f=false |url-status=live }}}}

{{main|Mongol invasions of Korea|l1=Mongol invasions of Korea|Mongol conquest of China|l2=China|Mongol invasions of Japan|Mongol invasions of Tibet|l3=Japan}}

File:Bataille entre mongols & chinois (1211).jpeg against the Jin dynasty.]]Genghis Khan and his descendants launched progressive invasions of China, subjugating the Western Xia in 1209 before destroying them in 1227, defeating the Jin dynasty in 1234 and defeating the Song dynasty in 1279. They made the Kingdom of Dali into a vassal state in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan, forced Korea to capitulate through nine invasions, but failed in their attempts to invade Japan, their fleets scattered by kamikaze storms.

File:Mongol Invasion of China.pngThe Mongols' greatest triumph was when Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in China in 1271. The dynasty created a "Han Army" (漢軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" (新附軍).[https://books.google.com/books?id=8hOgAAAAIAAJ&dq=han+tumen+khitan&pg=PA66 Hucker 1985] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174259/https://books.google.com/books?id=8hOgAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=han+tumen+khitan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ij8sVefWHaXIsATnqID4AQ&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBw |date=2015-09-10 }}, p. 66.

The Mongol force which invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=John Masson |title=Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1998 |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=54–62 |doi=10.2307/606298 |jstor=606298 }}

The Yuan dynasty established the top-level government agency Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs to govern Tibet, which was conquered by the Mongols and put under Yuan rule. The Mongols also invaded Sakhalin Island between 1264 and 1308. Likewise, Korea (Goryeo) became a semi-autonomous vassal state of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years.

{{main|Mongol conquest of Siberia}}

By 1206, Genghis Khan had conquered all Mongol and Turkic tribes in Mongolia and southern Siberia. In 1207 his eldest son Jochi subjugated the Siberian forest people, the Uriankhai, the Oirats, Barga, Khakas, Buryats, Tuvans, {{ill|Khori-Tumed|ru|Хори-туматы}}, and Yenisei Kyrgyz according to chapter 5 of the Secret History of the Mongols. He then organized the Siberians into three tumens. He gave the Telengits and Tolos along the Irtysh to an old companion, Qorchi. While the Barga, Tumed, Buriats, Khori, Keshmiti, and Bashkirs were organized in separate thousands, the Telengit, Tolos, Oirats and Yenisei Kirghiz were numbered into the regular tumensC.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 502 Genghis created a settlement of Chinese craftsmen and farmers at Kem-kemchik after the first phase of the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty. The Khagans favored gyrfalcons, furs, women, and Kyrgyz horses for tribute.

Western Siberia came under the Golden Horde.Nagendra Kr Singh, Nagendra Kumar – International Encyclopaedia of Islamic Dynasties, p.271 The descendants of Orda Khan, the eldest son of Jochi, directly ruled the area. In the swamps of western Siberia, dog sled Yam stations were set up to facilitate collection of tribute.

In 1270, Kublai Khan sent a Chinese official, with a new batch of settlers, to serve as judge of the Kyrgyz and Tuvan basin areas (益蘭州 and 謙州).History of Yuan 《 元史 》， Ogedei's grandson Kaidu occupied portions of Central Siberia from 1275 on. The Yuan dynasty army under Kublai's Kipchak general Tutugh reoccupied the Kyrgyz lands in 1293. From then on, the Yuan dynasty controlled large portions of Central and Eastern Siberia.C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.503

{{main|Mongol invasion of Europe}}

File:Bitwa pod Legnicą.jpg took place during the first Mongol invasion of Poland.]]File:Spisska nova ves...castle.jpg led to construction of mighty stone castles, such as Spiš Castle in Slovakia.]]

The Mongols invaded and destroyed Volga Bulgaria and Kievan Rus', before invading Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and other territories. Over the course of three years (1237–1240), the Mongols razed all the major cities of Russia with the exceptions of Novgorod and Pskov.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1113655.stm|work=BBC News|title=BBC Russia Timeline|access-date=2018-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318035844/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1113655.stm|archive-date=2018-03-18|url-status=live|date=2012-03-06}}

Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, traveled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:{{Blockquote|text=They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.[https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html The Destruction of Kiev] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |date=2011-04-27 }}|sign=|source=}}

The Mongol invasions displaced populations on a scale never seen before in central Asia or eastern Europe. Word of the Mongol hordes' approach spread terror and panic.{{cite book |author=Diana Lary |title=Chinese Migrations: The Movement of People, Goods, and Ideas over Four Millennia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_FDAXMsq1QC&pg=PT49 |year=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=49 |isbn=9780742567658 |access-date=2015-06-20 |archive-date=2023-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729092658/https://books.google.com/books?id=w_FDAXMsq1QC&pg=PT49 |url-status=live }} The violent character of the invasions acted as a catalyst for further violence between Europe's elites and sparked additional conflicts. The increase in violence in the affected eastern European regions correlates with a decrease in the elite's numerical skills, and has been postulated as a root of the Great Divergence.{{cite journal |last1=Keywood |first1=Thomas |last2=Baten |first2=Jörg |title=Elite violence and elite numeracy in Europe from 500 to 1900 CE: roots of the divergence |journal=Cliometrica |date=1 May 2021 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=319–389 |doi=10.1007/s11698-020-00206-1 |s2cid=219040903 |doi-access=free |hdl=10419/289019 |hdl-access=free }}

{{Main|Mongol invasions of India}}

From 1221 to 1327, the Mongol Empire launched several invasions into the Indian subcontinent. The Mongols occupied parts of northwestern South Asia for decades. However, they failed to penetrate past the outskirts of Delhi and were repelled from the interior of India. Centuries later, the Mughals, whose founder Babur had Mongol roots, established their own empire in India.

{{main|First Mongol invasion of Burma|l1=First|Second Mongol invasion of Burma|l2= Second Mongol invasion of Burma|Mongol invasions of Vietnam|l3=Mongol invasions of Vietnam|Mongol invasion of Java|l4=Mongol invasions of Java}}

Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty invaded Burma between 1277 and 1287, resulting in the capitulation and disintegration of the Pagan Kingdom. However, the invasion of 1301 was repulsed by the Burmese Myinsaing Kingdom. The Mongol invasions of Vietnam (Đại Việt) and Java resulted in defeat for the Mongols, although much of Southeast Asia agreed to pay tribute to avoid further bloodshed.[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UHi9JXNokEC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA120 Taylor 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413014840/https://books.google.com/books?id=6UHi9JXNokEC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA120 |date=2023-04-13 }}, pp. 103, 120.[https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159 ed. Hall 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20161022121639/https://books.google.de/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |date=2016-10-22 }}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nZaaAAAAQBAJ&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159 p. 159] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406115436/https://books.google.com/books?id=nZaaAAAAQBAJ&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159 |date=2023-04-06 }}.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&pg=PT90|title=Sources of Vietnamese Tradition|first1=Jayne|last1=Werner|first2=John K.|last2=Whitmore|first3=George|last3=Dutton|date=21 August 2012|publisher=Columbia University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780231511100|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=1 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080052/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&pg=PT90#v=snippet&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&f=false|url-status=live}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA112 Gunn 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406115435/https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA112 |date=2023-04-06 }}, p. 112.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran%20fujian|title=Encyclopedia of Asian history|first1=Ainslie Thomas|last1=Embree|first2=Robin Jeanne|last2=Lewis|date=1 January 1988|publisher=Scribner|isbn=9780684189017|via=Google Books|access-date=4 June 2020|archive-date=1 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080053/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran%20fujian|url-status=live}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&dq=tran+fukien&pg=PA8 Woodside 1971] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405181634/https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&dq=tran+fukien&pg=PA8 |date=2023-04-05 }}, p. 8.

The Mongol invasions played an indirect role in the establishment of major Tai states in the region by recently migrated Tais, who originally came from Southern China, in the early centuries of the second millennium.{{cite book |last1=Lieberman |first1=Victor |title=Strange Parallels: Volume 1, Integration on the Mainland: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c.800–1830 (Studies in Comparative World History) |date=2003 |pages=|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521800860|edition=Kindle }} Major Tai states such as Lan Na, Sukhothai, and Lan Xang appeared around this time.

{{main|Destruction under the Mongol Empire}}

Due to the lack of contemporary records, estimates of the violence associated with the Mongol conquests vary considerably.{{Cite web|url=https://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Mongol|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count|website=necrometrics.com|access-date=2019-02-04|archive-date=2022-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120222717/http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Mongol|url-status=live}} Not including the mortality from the Plague in Europe, West Asia, or China{{cite book |last1=Maddison |first1=Angus |title=Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run |series=Development Centre Studies |year=2007 |isbn=978-92-64-03763-2 |doi=10.1787/9789264037632-en }}{{page needed|date=February 2022}} it is possible that between 20 and 60 million people were killed between 1206 and 1405 during the various campaigns of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, and Timur.McEvedy, Colin; Jones, Richard M. (1978). Atlas of World Population History. New York, NY: Puffin. p. 172. {{ISBN|9780140510768}}.Graziella Caselli, Gillaume Wunsch, Jacques Vallin (2005). "Demography: Analysis and Synthesis, Four Volume Set: A Treatise in Population". Academic Press. p.34. {{ISBN|0-12-765660-X}} However, the book from which the figures originate has been criticized for its methodology{{Cite journal |last=Guinnane |first=Timothy W. |date=2023 |title=We Do Not Know the Population of Every Country in the World for the Past Two Thousand Years |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/we-do-not-know-the-population-of-every-country-in-the-world-for-the-past-two-thousand-years/D747DDC6E499C799B0471DBE33FEB0BB |journal=The Journal of Economic History |language=en |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=912–938 |doi=10.1017/S0022050723000293 |issn=0022-0507|doi-access=free }} and the Chinese censuses on which the estimates are based are considered unreliable.{{Cite journal |last=Durand |first=John D. |date=1960 |title=The population statistics of China, A.D. 2–1953 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00324728.1960.10405043 |journal=Population Studies |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=210-214, 228-230 |doi=10.1080/00324728.1960.10405043 |issn=0032-4728|url-access=subscription }} Nevertheless, the campaigns killed a large number of people and involved battles, sieges,{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Mongol-Siege-of-Kaifeng|title=Mongol Siege of Kaifeng {{!}} Summary|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-02-04|archive-date=2022-01-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114200309/https://www.britannica.com/event/Mongol-Siege-of-Kaifeng|url-status=live}} early biological warfare,{{cite journal |last1=Wheelis |first1=Mark |title=Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |date=September 2002 |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=971–975 |doi=10.3201/eid0809.010536 |pmid=12194776 |pmc=2732530 }} and massacres.{{cite journal |last1=Morgan |first1=D. O. |title=The Mongol Armies in Persia |journal=Der Islam |date=1979 |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=81–96 |id={{ProQuest|1308651973}} |doi=10.1515/islm.1979.56.1.81 |s2cid=161610216 }}Halperin, C. J. (1987). Russia and the Golden Horde: the Mongol impact on medieval Russian history (Vol. 445). Indiana University Press.

• Destruction under the Mongol Empire
• Slave trade in the Mongol Empire
• Division of the Mongol Empire
• List of wars by death toll
• Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe
• List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'
• Mongol invasion of Europe
• Mongol military tactics and organization
• Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire
• Timeline of the Mongol Empire
• Timeline of the Golden Horde
• The Mongol Invasion (trilogy)

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

• Boyle, John Andrew The Mongol World Enterprise, 1206–1370 (London 1977) {{ISBN|0860780023}}
• Hildinger, Erik. Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700
• May, Timothy. The Mongol Conquests in World History (London: Reaktion Books, 2011) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=36345 online review]; [https://www.amazon.com/Mongol-Conquests-World-History-Reaktion/dp/1861898673/ excerpt and text search]
• Morgan, David. The Mongols (2nd ed. 2007)
• Rossabi, Morris. The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2012)
• Saunders, J. J. The History of the Mongol Conquests (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Mongol-Conquests-J-Saunders/dp/0812217667/ excerpt and text search]
• Srodecki, Paul. Fighting the ‘Eastern Plague'. Anti-Mongol Crusade Ventures in the Thirteenth Century. In: The Expansion of the Faith. Crusading on the Frontiers of Latin Christendom in the High Middle Ages, ed. Paul Srodecki and Norbert Kersken (Turnhout: Brepols 2022), {{ISBN|978-2-503-58880-3}}, pp. 303–327.
• Turnbull, Stephen. Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquests 1190–1400 (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Genghis-Conquests-1190-1400-Essential-Histories/dp/0415968623/ excerpt and text search]
• Bayarsaikhan Dashdondog. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HrqqhduBapQC The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335)]. BRILL (2010)

• Rossabi, Morris. The Mongols and Global History: A Norton Documents Reader (2011)

{{Commons category|Mongol conquests}}

• [http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm Worldwide death toll]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html The Destruction of Kiev]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080423014420/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Three.html Battuta's Travels: Part Three{{snd}}Persia and Iraq]
• [https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm Central Asian world cities?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118054002/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |date=2012-01-18 }}
• [http://countrystudies.us/vietnam/9.htm The Tran Dynasty and the Defeat of the Mongols]

{{Mongol Empire}}

Category:13th-century conflicts

Category:14th-century conflicts

Category:Military expeditions

Category:Genocides in Asia

Category:Genocides in Europe