Multicultural London English

MLE is rooted mostly in the widespread migration from the Caribbean to the UK following World War II, and to a lesser extent the migration from other areas such as South Asia and West Africa.{{Cite web|title=What is MLE? – Language and Linguistic Science, The University of York|url=https://www.york.ac.uk/language/research/projects/mle/what-is-mle/|access-date=5 January 2021|website=www.york.ac.uk|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032931/https://www.york.ac.uk/language/research/projects/mle/what-is-mle/|url-status=live}} Distinctive Black British slang did not become widely visible until the 1970s. The popularity of Jamaican music in the UK, such as reggae and ska, led to the emergence of slang rooted in Jamaican patois being used in the UK, setting the foundation for what would later become known as MLE.

Research conducted in the early 1980s concluded that adolescents of Afro-Caribbean descent were 'bidialectal', switching between Jamaican creole and London English; while white working class adolescents would occasionally use creole-inspired slang, they retained their accents. In 1985, Smiley Culture, a British musician of Jamaican and Guyanese heritage, released "Cockney Translation", one of the first examples of British 'white slang' and British 'black slang' appearing side-by-side on a record (however, still distinct from each other).{{Cite book|last=Green|first=Jonathon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E04_DQAAQBAJ&q=slang+%22showerman%22&pg=PT237|title=The Stories of Slang: Language at its most human|date=5 October 2017|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-1-4721-3967-2|language=en|access-date=15 February 2021|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181255/https://books.google.com/books?id=E04_DQAAQBAJ&q=slang+%22showerman%22&pg=PT237|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=Nott|first=Christ|title=The post-racial, non-rhotic, inner city, Th-fronting, cross cultural, dipthong shifting, multi-ethnic, L-vocalisation, K-backing fusion of language.|url=https://tonythornesite.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/mle-final-book_tony_s.pdf|access-date=5 January 2021|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181221/https://tonythornesite.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/mle-final-book_tony_s.pdf|url-status=dead}} While Smiley Culture was commenting on how the two forms of slang were very distinct from each other and lived side-by-side, more natural fusions would become common in later years. Some hip-hop artists from the late 1980s and early 1990s, such as London Posse, regularly infused both cockney and patois influenced slang in their music, showcasing how elements of both were becoming very much entwined and influencing each other, reflecting how younger, working-class Londoners were speaking.{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=Andy|date=1 August 2009|title="Original London style": London Posse and the birth of British Hip Hop|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14788810902981050|journal=Atlantic Studies|volume=6|issue=2|pages=175–190|doi=10.1080/14788810902981050|s2cid=162401250|issn=1478-8810|access-date=5 January 2021|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181223/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14788810902981050|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} Such influences were not restricted to persons of a specific racial background. In 1987, Dick Hebdige, a British sociologist, commented that "In some parts of Britain, West Indian patois has become the public language of inner-city youths, irrespective of their racial origin".{{Cite book|last=Hebdige|first=Dick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOGIAgAAQBAJ&q=%22In+some+parts+of+britain,+West+indian+patois+has+become+the+public+language+of+inner-city+youths,+irrespective+of+their+racial+origin%22&pg=PA148|title=Cut 'n' Mix: Culture, Identity and Caribbean Music|date=2 September 2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-93104-0|language=en|access-date=15 February 2021|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032919/https://books.google.com/books?id=GOGIAgAAQBAJ&q=%22In+some+parts+of+britain%2C+West+indian+patois+has+become+the+public+language+of+inner-city+youths%2C+irrespective+of+their+racial+origin%22&pg=PA148|url-status=live}}

By the late 1990s, London was becoming increasingly multilingual, and residential segregation was less common. Young people from various ethnic backgrounds intermixed and, in Hackney at least, Cockney was no longer the majority-spoken local dialect, resulting in children of various ethnic backgrounds adopting MLE. Linguist Tony Thorne noted that white working-class school kids were using "recreolised lexis". In the following decade, it would become ever more common, showcased prominently in music such as grime and British hip hop, and in films like Kidulthood.{{Cite web |title=Resources – Language and Linguistic Science |publisher=The University of York |url= https://www.york.ac.uk/language/research/projects/mle/resources/ |access-date=5 January 2021 |website= www.york.ac.uk |archive-date=19 March 2021| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181415/https://www.york.ac.uk/language/research/projects/mle/resources/ |url-status=live}}

As the media became more aware of MLE in the 2000s, a variety of names emerged to describe it such as "Nang slang", "Blinglish", "Tikkiny", or "Blockney".{{Cite book |last=Thorne| first=Tony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5He9AgAAQBAJ&q=%22nang%22+slang+origin&pg=PA302|title=Dictionary of Contemporary Slang |date=27 February 2014 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4081-8181-2 |access-date=15 February 2021 |archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=

https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181419/https://books.google.com/books?id=5He9AgAAQBAJ&q=%22nang%22+slang+origin&pg=PA302 |url-status=live}}{{Cite news |date=22 February 2004 |title=Yo, Blingland! Hip-hop culture rules for British teens |url= https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/feb/22/britishidentity.arts |access-date=5 January 2021 |work=The Guardian |location= London |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181419/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/feb/22/britishidentity.arts |url-status=live}}{{Cite news |date=20 August 2012 |title=Jafaican and Tikkiny drown out the East End's Cockney twang |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/jafaican-and-tikkiny-drown-out-the-east-end-s-cockney-twang-357032.html |access-date=5 January 2021 |work=The Independent |location= London |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181416/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/jafaican-and-tikkiny-drown-out-the-east-end-s-cockney-twang-357032.html |url-status=live}}{{Cite news |date=16 March 2011| title=The death of a toasting translator |newspaper=The Economist |location= London |url= https://www.economist.com/johnson/2011/03/16/the-death-of-a-toasting-translator |access-date=5 January 2021 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181417/https://www.economist.com/johnson/2011/03/16/the-death-of-a-toasting-translator |url-status=live}} MLE is sometimes referred to as "Jafaican" (or "Jafaikan"), conveying the idea of "fake Jamaican", because of popular belief that it stems solely from immigrants of Jamaican and Caribbean descent.{{Cite news |last=Braier |first=Rachel |date=30 August 2013 |title=Jafaican? No we're not |work=The Guardian |location= London |url= https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-your-language/2013/aug/30/mind-your-language-jafaican |access-date=15 December 2016 |archive-date=26 March 2021 |archive-url=

https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032933/https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-your-language/2013/aug/30/mind-your-language-jafaican |url-status=live}} However, research suggests that the roots of MLE are more varied: two Economic and Social Research Council-funded research projects{{Cite web |title=Linguistic Innovators: The English of Adolescents in London ESRC grant page |url= http://www.researchcatalogue.esrc.ac.uk/grants/RES-000-23-0680/read |access-date=23 May 2016 |archive-date=21 October 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181021190733/https://www.researchcatalogue.esrc.ac.uk/grants/RES-000-23-0680/read |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |title=Multicultural London English: the emergence, acquisition and diffusion of a new variety ESRC grant page |url= http://www.researchcatalogue.esrc.ac.uk/grants/RES-062-23-0814/read |access-date=23 May 2016 |archive-date=21 October 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181021151532/https://www.researchcatalogue.esrc.ac.uk/grants/RES-062-23-0814/read|url-status=live}} found that MLE has most likely developed as a result of language contact and group second language acquisition.{{Cite journal |last1=Cheshire |first1=Jenny |last2=Kerswill |first2=Paul |last3=Fox |first3=Sue |last4=Torgersen |first4=Eivind |date=1 April 2011 |title=Contact, the feature pool and the speech community: The emergence of Multicultural London English |url= http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75321/1/Emergence_paper_for_JS_23_2_11_singlespacel.pdf|journal=Journal of Sociolinguistics |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=151–196 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9841.2011.00478.x |issn=1467-9841 |access-date=9 July 2019 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181649/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75321/1/Emergence_paper_for_JS_23_2_11_singlespacel.pdf |url-status=live}} Specifically, it can contain elements from "learners' varieties of English, Englishes from the Indian subcontinent and Africa, Caribbean creoles and Englishes along with their indigenised London versions, local London and south-eastern vernacular varieties of English, local and international youth slang, as well as more levelled and standard-like varieties from various sources."{{sfn|Kerswill|2013|p=5}}{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8qbbCgAAQBAJ |title=Global English Slang: Methodologies and Perspectives |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=9781317934769 |page=96 |access-date=25 September 2020 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181702/https://books.google.com/books?id=8qbbCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}

According to research conducted at Lancaster University and Queen Mary University of London in 2010, "In much of the East End of London the Cockney dialect... will have disappeared within another generation.... it will be gone [from the East End] within 30 years.... It has been 'transplanted' to... [Essex and Hertfordshire New] towns."{{sfn|University of Lancaster press release|2010}}{{sfn|BBC News|2010}}

With the worldwide growth of grime and UK drill from the mid-2010s onwards, elements of MLE began to spread internationally along with the genres. Some Australian, Canadian, Dutch, and Irish musicians, such as Onefour, Drake, and 73 De Pijp, for example, have been noted for using slang derivatives of MLE.{{Cite news |title=Grime and UK drill are exporting multicultural London English |date=30 January 2021 |newspaper=The Economist |location= London |url= https://www.economist.com/britain/2021/01/30/grime-and-uk-drill-are-exporting-multicultural-london-english |access-date=14 August 2022 |archive-date=22 February 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210222064451/https://www.economist.com/britain/2021/01/30/grime-and-uk-drill-are-exporting-multicultural-london-english |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Dichio |first=Luca |date=15 November 2018 |title=The Thin White Line Between U.K Grime And Toronto Rap Culture |url= https://sidedoormag.com/blog/the-thin-white-line-between-uk-grime-and-toronto-rap-culture |access-date=14 August 2022 |website=Sidedoor Magazine |archive-date=17 December 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191217125928/https://sidedoormag.com/blog/the-thin-white-line-between-uk-grime-and-toronto-rap-culture |url-status=live }} Kate Burridge and Howard Manns, both Australian linguists, also noted that some MLE phrases (such as 'peng', meaning attractive or good) were being used generally by Australian youth. Similar influences have also been noted in Finnish teenagers.{{Cite journal |last=Raiski |first=Ilari |title="Good to see the mandem from the endz doing their ting" – Multicultural London English in the tweets of Grime artists |url= https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/331105/Raiski_Ilari_Pro_Gradu_2021.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |url-status=live |journal= |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220606071104/https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/331105/Raiski_Ilari_Pro_Gradu_2021.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |archive-date=6 June 2022}}

It has been noted that in other countries, such as Canada, Multicultural Toronto English has developed very strong similarities derived from MLE, which arose independently but with similar cultural influences and origin roots.{{Cite news |date=13 October 2019 |title=Toronto slang on the rise thanks to city's growing pop culture relevance |work=CBC News |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-slang-1.5320157 |access-date=8 March 2022 |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308211411/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/toronto-slang-1.5320157 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Farooqui |first=Salmaan |date=13 October 2019 |title=Toronto slang on the rise thanks to city's growing pop culture relevance |url=https://www.cp24.com/news/toronto-slang-on-the-rise-thanks-to-city-s-growing-pop-culture-relevance-1.4636719?cache=%3FclipId%3D104062 |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=CP24 |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220912222407/https://www.cp24.com/news/toronto-slang-on-the-rise-thanks-to-city-s-growing-pop-culture-relevance-1.4636719?cache=%3FclipId%3D104062 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Wijekoon |first=Pamoda |date=17 July 2020 |title=The past, present, and future of Canadian English: What our accent tells us about being Canadian |url=https://the-pigeon.ca/2020/07/17/canadian-accent/ |access-date=14 August 2022 |website=The Pigeon |archive-date=5 May 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220505081732/https://the-pigeon.ca/2020/07/17/canadian-accent/ |url-status=live }} A Canadian linguist, Derek Denis, has been noting MTE for some of the MLE phrases (such as "mans", meaning a group of guys, "wasteman", meaning someone's a waste of space or a loser, and "yute", a slang term of Jamaican origin for "youth", used to refer to a young adult or child), which were commonly used by Torontonian youths.{{Cite news |last=Farooqui |first=Salmaan |date=23 October 2019 |title=Why Torontonians should be proud of our local slang |url= https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2019/10/23/why-torontonians-should-be-proud-of-our-local-slang.html |access-date=14 August 2022 |work=Toronto Star |archive-date=14 August 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220814204057/https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2019/10/23/why-torontonians-should-be-proud-of-our-local-slang.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=7 May 2018 |title=A Linguistics Professor Wrote An Entire Academic Paper On The Toronto Slang Word 'Mans' |url=https://www.narcity.com/toronto/a-linguistics-professor-wrote-an-entire-academic-paper-on-the-toronto-slang-word-mans |access-date=8 March 2022 |website=Narcity |language=en-ca |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220303172842/https://www.narcity.com/toronto/a-linguistics-professor-wrote-an-entire-academic-paper-on-the-toronto-slang-word-mans |url-status=live }}

• Was/were variation: The past tense of the verb "to be" is regularised. Regularisation of was/were is something that is found across the English speaking world. Many non-standard systems in Britain (and parts of the US Mid-Atlantic coast) use was variably for positive conjugations, and weren't for negative conjugations (system 1 below) to make the distinction between positive and negative contexts clearer (cf. will/won't and are/ain't).{{Cite journal|last1=Wolfram|first1=Walt|last2=Schilling-Estes|first2=Natalie|date=1994|title=Convergent explanation and alternative regularization patterns: Were/weren't levelling in a vernacular English variety.|journal=Language Variation and Change|volume=6|issue=3|pages=273–302|doi=10.1017/S0954394500001691|s2cid=144204035 }} Most non-Standard varieties in the English speaking world have a system where both positive and negative contexts have levelled to was (system 2 below). Speakers of MLE use any of the three systems, with choice correlating with ethnicity and gender.{{Cite journal|last1=Cheshire|first1=Jenny|last2=Fox|first2=Sue|date=2008|title=Was/were variation: A perspective from London|journal=Language Variation and Change|volume=21|issue=1|pages=1–38|doi=10.1017/S0954394509000015|s2cid=145255880|issn=1469-8021}} Cheshire and Fox (2008) found the use of non-standard was to be most common among Black Caribbean speakers, and least common among those of Bangladeshi descent. Bangladeshis were also found to use non-standard weren't the least, but this variable was used more by white British speakers than anyone else.

• An innovative feature is the ability to form questions in "Why ... for?"{{sfn|Kerswill|2007}} compared to Standard English "Why ...?" or "What ... for?".
• The "traditional Southern"{{sfn|Kerswill|2007}} England phrasal preposition "off of" has "robust use",{{sfn|Kerswill|2007}} especially with "Anglo females".{{sfn|Kerswill|2007}}
• Man as a pronoun: 'Man' is widely used as a first person singular pronoun, which may be rendered "man's" when combined with certain verbs such as "to be" and "to have": "man got arrested", "man's getting emotional".{{Cite journal|last=Cheshire|first=Jenny|year=2013|title=Grammaticalisation in social context: The emergence of a new English pronoun|journal=Journal of Sociolinguistics|volume=17 |issue=5|pages=608–633|doi=10.1111/josl.12053}} "Man" can also be used to refer to the second-person or third-person singular: "Where's man going?" (Where are you/is he going?)

• Innit/init, arguably a reduction of 'isn't it', has a third discourse function in MLE, in addition to the widespread usage as a tag-question or a follow-up as in [1] and [2] below. In MLE, innit can also mark information structure overtly, to mark a topic or to foreground new information, as in the italicised example in [3].

: [1] they was getting jealous though innit

: [2] Hadiya: it weren't like it was an accident

: {{spaces|7}}Bisa: innit

: [3] yeah I know. I'm a lot smaller than all of them man and who were like "whoa". I mean the sister innit she's about five times bigger than you innit Mark?

• This is as a quotative, to introduce direct reported speech at key points in dramatic narrative.{{cite journal |last1=Cheshire |first1=Jenny |last2=Hall |first2=David |last3=Adger |first3=David |title=Multicultural London English and social and educational policies |journal=Languages, Society & Policy |year=2017 |doi=10.17863/CAM.9804}}

: this is my mum's boyfriend "put that in your pocket now".

{{IPA notice|section}}

While older speakers in London today display a vowel and consonant system that matches previously dominant accents such as Cockney, young speakers often display different qualities. The qualities are on the whole not the levelled ones noted in recent studies (such as Williams & Kerswill 1999 and Przedlacka 2002) of teenage speakers in South East England outside London: Milton Keynes, Reading, Luton, Essex, Slough and Ashford. From principles of levelling, it would be expected that younger speakers would show precisely the levelled qualities, with further developments reflecting the innovatory status of London as well as the passage of time. However, evidence, such as Cheshire et al. (2011) and Cheshire et al. (2013), contradicts that expectation.

• Fronting of {{IPA|/ʊ/}}, the vowel in FOOT: "more retracted in the outer-city borough of Havering than in Hackney"
• Lack of {{IPA|/oʊ/}}-fronting: fronting of the offset of {{IPA|/oʊ/}} "absent in most inner-London speakers" of both sexes and all ethnicities but "present in outer-city girls".
• {{IPA|/aɪ/}}-lowering across region: it is seen as a reversal of the diphthong shift. However, the added fronting is greater in London than in the southeastern periphery, resulting in variants such as {{IPA|[aɪ]}} and monophthongised {{IPA|[aː]}}. Fronting and monophthongisation of {{IPA|/aɪ/}} are correlated with ethnicity and strongest among Black, Asian, and minority ethnic (BAME) speakers. It seems to be a geographically directional and diachronically gradual process. The change (from approximately {{IPA|[ɔɪ]}}) involves lowering of the onset, and as such, it is a reversal of the diphthong shift. It can be interpreted as a London innovation with diffusion to the periphery.
• Raised onset of the vowel in words like FACE, which results in variants such as {{IPA|[eɪ]}}. Like {{IPA|/aɪ/}}, monophthongisation of {{IPA|/eɪ/}} to {{IPA|[eː]}} is strongest among BAME. It is also seen as a reversal of the diphthong shift.{{Cite journal|last1=Cheshire|first1=Jenny|last2=Fox|first2=Sue|last3=Kerswill|first3=Paul|last4=Torgersen|first4=Eivind|year=2013|title=Language contact and language change in the multicultural metropolis|journal=Revue Française de Linguistique Appliqueé|volume=XVIII}}
• {{IPA|/aʊ/}} realised as {{IPA|[aː]}} and not "levelled" {{IPA|[aʊ]}}: In inner-city London, {{IPA|[aː]}} is the norm for {{IPA|/aʊ/}}. Additionally, {{IPA|[ɑʊ]}} is used by some BAME, especially girls, in the inner city.
• Advanced fronting of {{IPA|/uː/}} results in realisations such as {{IPAblink|ʏː}}
• Backing of {{IPA|/æ/}} can result in variants such as {{IPAblink|a̠}}.
• Backing of {{IPA|/ʌ/}} results in variants such as {{IPAblink|ɑ}} or {{IPAblink|ʌ}}, rather than {{IPAblink|ɐ}}.

• Reversal of H-dropping: word-initial {{IPA|/h/}} was commonly dropped in traditional Cockney in words like hair and hand. That is now much less common, with some MLE speakers not dropping {{IPA|/h/}} at all.
• Backing of {{IPA|/k/}} to {{IPAblink|q}}: {{IPA|/k/}} is pronounced further back in the vocal tract and is realised as {{IPA|[q]}} when it occurs before non-high back vowels, such as in words like cousin and come.
• Th-fronting: {{IPA|/θ/}} is fronted to {{IPAblink|f}} in words such as three and through (which become free and frough), and {{IPA|/ð/}} is fronted to {{IPAblink|v}} in words such as brother and another, which become bruver and anuver.
• Th-stopping: Syllable-initial voiceless "th" can be stopped (i.e., pronounced as "t"), so thing becomes ting. Syllable-initial voiced "th" (as in this, that, though, etc) is stopped (i.e., pronounced "d"), so the aforementioned words become dis, dat/dah and doe respectively.
• Among speakers of Jamaican descent, London t-glottalization may additionally apply to {{IPA|[t]}} resulting from stopped {{IPA|/θ/}}, for example both of them {{IPA|[boʊʔ ə dɛm]}}. Hypercorrections like {{IPA|[fʊθ]}} for foot may also be heard among Jamaicans.John C. Wells Jamaican pronunciation in London The Philological Society (1973).
• According to Geoff Lindsey, one of the most striking features of MLE is the advanced articulation of the sibilants {{IPA|/s, z/}} as post-dental {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|s̪}}, {{IPAplink|z̪}}]}}.{{sfn|Lindsey|2011}}
• Like most accents of England, Multicultural London English is non-rhotic.{{Cite web |title=Multicultural London English (MLE) – KTS |url=https://accent.ktspeech.work/multicultural-london-english-mle/ |access-date=31 July 2023 |language=en-US}}

{{wiktionarycat|Multicultural London English}}

Examples of vocabulary common in Multicultural London English include:

• "Bait" (obvious, or well known){{Cite web|date=22 September 2011|title=From the mouths of teens|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/mouths-teens-422688.html|access-date=18 March 2021|website=The Independent|language=en|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181703/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/mouths-teens-422688.html|url-status=live}}
• "Balling" (rich)
• "Bare" (very/a lot/many)
• "Booky/Bookey/Bookie/Buki" (suspicious, strange){{Cite web|date=10 April 2012|title=The secret world of gang slang|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/the-secret-world-of-gang-slang-6530868.html|access-date=19 March 2021|website=www.standard.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032911/https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/the-secret-world-of-gang-slang-6530868.html|url-status=live}}
• "Buff" (strong/attractive) (can be used in conjunction with "ting" meaning an attractive situation, or more commonly, an attractive woman)
• "Butters" (ugly, or disgusting)
• "Dead/bad" (boring, empty)
• "Deep" (very unfortunate/serious) (used to describe a situation)
• "Dutty" (dirty, bad, ugly){{Cite web|date=15 September 2017|title=The rise of Multicultural London English, innit?|url=https://study.soas.ac.uk/multicultural-london-english/|access-date=19 March 2021|website=SOAS Blog|language=en-GB|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181012/https://study.soas.ac.uk/multicultural-london-english/|url-status=live}}
• "Gassed" (overwhelmed, happy, excited, full of oneself){{Cite web|title=Big up MLE - the origins of London's 21st century slang|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/2017/08/big-mle-origins-londons-21st-century-slang|access-date=19 March 2021|website=www.newstatesman.com|date=26 August 2017 |language=en|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181012/https://www.newstatesman.com/2017/08/big-mle-origins-londons-21st-century-slang|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=27 November 2019|title=Sorry Michael Gove, my blackness is not a funny outfit for politicians like you to try on|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/michael-gove-stormzy-tweet-corbyn-grime-black-british-culture-language-a9219966.html|access-date=19 March 2021|website=The Independent|language=en|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181846/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/michael-gove-stormzy-tweet-corbyn-grime-black-british-culture-language-a9219966.html|url-status=live}}
• "Greezy" (bad)
• "Gully" (rough, cool){{Cite web|last=Thorne|first=Tony|title=Multicultural London English Innovation starts inner city|url=https://tonythornesite.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/mle-terms_tony-1.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=19 March 2021|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181845/https://tonythornesite.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/mle-terms_tony-1.pdf}}
• "Hench" (physically fit, strong){{Cite web|title=17 Multicultural London English words and what they mean|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/1H14PvBsbMGrwzRGTBDsbzP/17-multicultural-london-english-words-and-what-they-mean|url-status=live|access-date=19 March 2021|website=www.bbc.co.uk|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181849/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/1H14PvBsbMGrwzRGTBDsbzP/17-multicultural-london-english-words-and-what-they-mean}}
• "Leng" (attractive, gun, something good){{Cite web|date=29 March 2019|title='Ching, wap, ox': slang interpreters decipher texts for court evidence|url=http://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/mar/29/ching-wap-ox-slang-interpreters-decipher-texts-for-court-evidence|access-date=19 March 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319181851/https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/mar/29/ching-wap-ox-slang-interpreters-decipher-texts-for-court-evidence|url-status=live}}
• "Long" (laborious, tedious)
• "Moist" (soft / uncool, more extreme form of ‘wet’){{Cite web|title=Sick, bad, wicked: London's colourful slang on the rise|url=http://news.yahoo.com/sick-bad-wicked-londons-colourful-slang-rise-042517738.html|access-date=19 March 2021|website=news.yahoo.com|language=en-US|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032921/https://news.yahoo.com/sick-bad-wicked-londons-colourful-slang-rise-042517738.html|url-status=live}}
• "Peak" {{IPA|/piːk/}} (a situation or thing that is awful, undesirable, disappointing, or embarrassing. Originally it held a positive connotation){{Cite web|last=Davis|first=Rachael|date=12 December 2020|title=The London sayings and phrases that annoy the rest of England|url=https://www.mylondon.news/news/nostalgia/london-sayings-phrases-annoy-rest-19445090|access-date=19 March 2021|website=MyLondon|language=en|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032923/https://www.mylondon.news/news/nostalgia/london-sayings-phrases-annoy-rest-19445090|url-status=live}}
• "Peng" (attractive person, or something good)
• "Piff" (attractive person, something good){{Cite web|title=Police and politicians need a better understanding of slang {{!}} Feature from King's College London|url=https://www.kcl.ac.uk/tony-thorne-police-and-politicians-need-a-better-understanding-of-slang|access-date=19 March 2021|website=www.kcl.ac.uk|language=en-GB|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319182131/https://www.kcl.ac.uk/tony-thorne-police-and-politicians-need-a-better-understanding-of-slang|url-status=live}}
• "Safe" (greetings, good)
• "Shook" (scared){{Cite web|title=Teaching unit 2: Angela - street trouble|url=https://www.teachrealenglish.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ELTR_TU02_discussion-1.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=19 March 2021|archive-date=19 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319182126/https://www.teachrealenglish.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ELTR_TU02_discussion-1.pdf}}
• "Wavey" (high or drunk)
• "Wet" (uncool, boring, soft)

• "Dun know" ("of course" or "you already know", also an expression of approval. An abbreviated form of "You done know" as in "You done know how it goes".){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Alie/Ahlie!" ("Am I lying?", used as an expression of agreement, or as a question marker as in "Ahlie you sit there?"){{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}
• "Oh, my days!" {{IPA|/oʊ mɑː deɪz/}} (a generalised exclamation, previously common in the 1940s and 1950s)
• "Safe" {{IPA|/seɪf/}} (expression of approval, greeting, thanks, agreement, and also used as a parting phrase){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Rah!" {{IPA|/rɑː/}} (exclamation, used to express bad, excitement, shocking, unbelievable, wow)
• "Big man ting" ("seriously", used after making a statement){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "On a G ting" (almost the same as the above but less common and, unlike the above, used almost exclusively before making a statement)
• "Swear down!" ("swear it", "really?")
• "Wagwan" (What's going on?)

{{unreferenced section|date=March 2022}}

• "Man" (first or second-person singular)
• "You" (second-person singular)
• "My man" (third-person singular, masculine)
• "My guy" (close friend or acquaintance)
• "My G" (short for "my guy"){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Them man" (they)
• "These man" (they)
• "Us man" (we)
• "You man" (you, plural)
• "You(s) lot" (you, plural)

• "Akh" (a term of endearment, derived from the Arabic word for brother)
• "Blem" (a cigarette)
• "Blud" (an endearing term for a close friend; from "blood" implying family)
• "Boss(man)" (used to refer to an individual, often a service worker in a convenience store or chicken shop){{Cite web|date=27 September 2015|title=Hipster Fried Chicken|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/oct/27/hipster-fried-chicken-pfc-documentary|access-date=10 October 2021|website=www.theguardian.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108120916/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/oct/27/hipster-fried-chicken-pfc-documentary|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=14 July 2017|title=The Chicken Shop Is London|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-chicken-shop-is-london/|access-date=10 October 2021|website=Vice.com|language=en|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301020235/https://www.vice.com/en/article/vbmn43/the-chicken-shop-is-london|url-status=live}}
• "Bruv" (an endearing term used for a close friend or brother)
• "Boy" {{IPA|[bwɔːɛ]}} (a term of belittlement, to belittle someone){{Cite web |title=Culture Shock: Language Differences {{!}} Surrey meets the Caribbean |url=https://blogs.surrey.ac.uk/caribbeanblog/2018/07/02/culture-shock-language-differences/#:~:text=Taking%20a%20piss,%E2%80%98boying%20it |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=blogs.surrey.ac.uk}}
• "Creps" (shoes, more typically trainers or sneakers)
• "Ends" (neighbourhood)
• "Dinger" (car, often in a criminal context, referring to a stolen vehicle){{Cite web |last=Hyde |first=Nathan |date=13 November 2019 |title=Leeds men bragged about stealing luxury cars on social media - and it backfired |url=https://www.leeds-live.co.uk/news/leeds-news/leeds-men-bragged-stealing-cars-17247936 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=LeedsLive |language=en |quote=(dingers is slang for stolen cars)}}
• "Fam" (short for "family", can also refer to "friend")
• "Feds" (police){{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/mar/29/ching-wap-ox-slang-interpreters-decipher-texts-for-court-evidence | title='Ching, wap, ox': Slang interpreters decipher texts for court evidence | Police | the Guardian }}
• "Gally" (girl(s))
• "Garms" (clothes, derived from garments)
• "Gyal" {{IPA|[gjæl]}} (girl)
• "Gyaldem" {{IPA|[gjældɛm]}} (group of girls)
• "Mandem" (group of men, male friends)
• "Paigon" (a modified spelling of English word "pagan", to refer to a fake friend/enemy)
• "Rambo" (knife)
• "Riddim" (instrumental/beat of a song){{Cite web|date=25 March 2021|title=Songs From the City by Dan Hancox|url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/148948/songs-from-the-city|access-date=26 March 2021|website=Poetry Foundation|language=en|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308132636/https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/148948/songs-from-the-city|url-status=live}}
• "Roadman" (a youth member that spends a lot of time on the streets and may sell and use drugs, or cause trouble){{Cite journal |last=Palacios Martínez |first=Ignacio M. |title=Recent changes in London English. An overview of the main lexical, grammar and discourse features of Multicultural London English (MLE) |journal=Complutense Journal of English Studies |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CJES/article/download/77504/4564456559330 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127165945/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CJES/article/download/77504/4564456559330 |archive-date=27 January 2022 |archive-format=PDF |access-date=27 January 2022 |language=en |format=PDF |issn=2386-3935}}
• "Shank" (to stab, knife){{Cite web|date=10 April 2012|title=The secret world of gang slang|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/the-secret-world-of-gang-slang-6530868.html|access-date=26 March 2021|website=www.standard.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032913/https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/the-secret-world-of-gang-slang-6530868.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|date=12 August 2011|title=England riots: What's the meaning of the words behind the chaos?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-14506159|access-date=26 March 2021|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112013114/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-14506159|url-status=live}}
• "Side ting" (sexual partner other than a girlfriend/wife, as in the standard British phrase "a bit on the side"){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Skeng" (gun, knife)
• "Sket" (a promiscuous woman)
• "Ting" (a thing or a situation, also an attractive woman){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Wasteman" (a worthless/useless person)
• "Upsuh" (out of town){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Wap" (gun)
• "Wifey" (girlfriend or wife){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Yard" (house or dwelling)

• "Air" (to ignore somebody)
• "Allow (it/that)" (to urge someone else to exercise self-restraint)
• "Beef" (argument, fight)
• "Beg" (please, a wannabe/try-hard)
• "Bun" (to smoke, to kill someone)
• "Buss" (to give/to send, to bust, or to ejaculate){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Chat breeze" (talk rubbish/lie)
• "Cheff" (stab, from a chef cutting with a knife){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Ching" (stab)
• "Chirpse" (to flirt with somebody)
• "Clap" (to hit/shoot/attack){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Cotch" (to hang out)
• "Crease" (to laugh hysterically)
• "Dash" (to throw)
• "Duss" {{IPA|[dʌs]}} (to make a run for it){{Cite web|last=Thorne|first=Tony|title=Student Slang|url=https://www.kcl.ac.uk/study-legacy/assets/word/english-language-centre/tony-thorne/studentslang.doc|access-date=4 February 2023}}
• "Gas" (to lie)
• "Jack" (to steal something)
• "Kweff" (to stab){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Link (up)" (to meet up, give someone something, pre-relationship status)
• "Lips" (to kiss, specifically on the mouth){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Merk" (to beat someone, finish someone off)
• "Par (off)" (to verbally abuse someone, or to make a mockery of someone){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Pattern" (to fix something/yourself up/get something/get something done){{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}
• "Pree" (to stare at something or someone){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Set (me some/that)" (to ask for an item){{Citation needed|date=February 2023}}
• "Shoobz" (to party)
• "Touch yard" (to have reached home){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
• "Twos" (to share something with somebody)

• In The Real McCoy, one of the earliest seen forms of the language is widespread throughout this series.
• The Bhangra Muffin characters from Goodness Gracious Me use an early form of Multicultural London English.
• Characters of all ethnicities in the Channel 4 series Phoneshop use Multicultural London English continually.
• Characters in the film Kidulthood and its sequel Adulthood also use the dialect, as well as the parody film Anuvahood and its sequel Sumotherhood.
• The satirical character Ali G parodies the speech patterns of Multicultural London English for comic effect.
• The gang protagonists of the film Attack the Block speak Multicultural London English.
• Several characters in the sitcom People Just Do Nothing speak Multicultural London English.
• Lauren Cooper (and her friends Lisa and Ryan) from The Catherine Tate Show often use Multicultural London English vocabulary.
• In the feature film Kingsman: The Secret Service, the protagonist Gary "Eggsy" Unwin uses MLE, but his mother and stepfather use regular Cockney.
• Lisa, the police officer in Little Miss Jocelyn, speaks Multicultural London English and interprets speech for colleagues.
• Armstrong & Miller has a series of Second World War sketches with two RAF pilots who juxtapose the dialect's vocabulary and grammar with a 1940s RP accent for comedic effect.
• A BBC article about Adele mentioned her as being a speaker of Multicultural London English.{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-35152397 |publisher=BBC |date=26 February 2016 |title=Adele: The full story |work=BBC News |last1=Gompertz |first1=Will |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319182136/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35152397 |url-status=live }}
• The Chicken Connoisseur (Elijah Quashie), a YouTube user who rates the quality of takeaways selling chicken and chips, frequently uses Multicultural London English vocabulary.{{Cite web| url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/the-chicken-connoisseur-schoolboy-reviews-london-chicken-shops-in-search-of-the-pengest-munch-a3416416.html| title=YouTube star reviews London chicken shops in search of 'pengest munch'| date=9 December 2016| access-date=5 April 2018| archive-date=19 March 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319182147/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/the-chicken-connoisseur-schoolboy-reviews-london-chicken-shops-in-search-of-the-pengest-munch-a3416416.html| url-status=live}}{{Cite web| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/chicken-connoisseur-boy-goes-viral-with-london-chicken-shop-reviews-series-called-the-pengest-munch_uk_584a71e1e4b0b7ff851ca90a| title=Boy Reviewing London's Chicken Shops Goes Viral| date=9 December 2016| access-date=4 January 2017| archive-date=19 March 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319182147/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/chicken-connoisseur-boy-goes-viral-with-london-chicken-shop-reviews-series-called-the-pengest-munch_uk_584a71e1e4b0b7ff851ca90a| url-status=live}}
• The TV show Chewing Gum uses Multicultural London English throughout.
• The song "Man's Not Hot" by comedian Michael Dapaah under the pseudonym Big Shaq, which satirises UK drill music, utilises MLE.{{Cite web|url=https://soundvenue.com/musik/2018/03/big-shaq-giver-koncert-i-koebenhavn-mans-not-hot-rapperen-til-ny-hiphopfestival-300708|title=Big Shaq giver koncert i København – 'Man's Not Hot' – rapperen til ny hiphopfestival|first=Kjartan F.|last=Stolberg|website=SOUNDVENUE.COM|date=8 March 2018 |access-date=15 April 2020|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032937/https://soundvenue.com/musik/2018/03/big-shaq-giver-koncert-i-koebenhavn-mans-not-hot-rapperen-til-ny-hiphopfestival-300708|url-status=live}}
• Many of the characters in the show Top Boy use Multicultural London English.
• The Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse adaptation of Hobie Brown / Spider-Punk uses MLE heavily throughout the film. The character's voice actor, Daniel Kaluuya, is from London.
• In the Netflix series Supacell, many of the characters speak Multicultural London English.

• Cockney
• Estuary English
• Koiné language
• Multiethnolect
• African American Vernacular English

{{Reflist|30em}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

• University of Lancaster press release, {{cite web| year=2010| title=Research shows that Cockney will disappear from London's streets within a generation| url=http://news.lancs.ac.uk/Web/News/Pages/D47105465E6D082B8025775300374D2E.aspx| ref=CITEREFUniversity_of_Lancaster_press_release2010| access-date=6 January 2016| archive-date=26 March 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326032914/https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/news-archive/D47105465E6D082B8025775300374D2E.php| url-status=live}}
• {{citation|work=BBC News|date=1 July 2010|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10473059|title=Cockney to disappear from London 'within 30 years'|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319182517/https://www.bbc.com/news/10473059|archive-date=19 March 2021|ref=CITEREFBBC_News2010}}
• {{citation | last=Kerswill | first=Paul | year=2013 | title=Identity, ethnicity and place: the construction of youth language in London. | pages=128–164 | url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75329/ | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | access-date=9 January 2016 | archive-date=19 March 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319182532/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75329/ | url-status=live }} In: Auer, Peter, Hilpert, Martin, Stukenbrock, Anja and Szmrecsanyi, Benedikt,(eds.) Space in language and linguistics. linguae and litterae . Walter de Gruyter, pp. 128–164. {{ISBN|978-3-11-031202-7}}
• {{citation | year= 2015 | author= Cheshire, Jenny, Nortier, Jacomine and Adger, David | title= Emerging multiethnolects in Europe | series= Queen Mary's Occasional Papers Advancing Linguistics | volume= 33 | url= http://linguistics.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/sites/default/files/33-QMOPAL-Cheshire-Nortier-Adger-.pdf | ref= CITEREFCheshire_et_al.2015 | access-date= 17 January 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030042/http://linguistics.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/sites/default/files/33-QMOPAL-Cheshire-Nortier-Adger-.pdf | archive-date= 4 March 2016 | url-status= dead }}
• {{citation | first1=Jenny |last1=Cheshire |first2=Sue |last2=Fox |first3=Paul | last3=Kerswill | first4=Eivind | last4=Torgersen|

title=Ethnicity, friendship network and social practices as the motor of dialect change: linguistic innovation in London | url= http://webspace.qmul.ac.uk/jlcheshire/pdf%20papers/ethnicity%20friendship%20networkpdf.pdf |year = 2008 | isbn = 978-3-484-60528-2 |

volume = 22 | pages = 1–23 | editor = Ulrich Ammon and Mattheier, {Klaus J.} | journal=Sociolinguistica : International Yearbook of European Sociolinguistics| publisher = Max Niemeyer Verlag |doi=10.1515/9783484605299.1 |s2cid=10973301 |ref=CITEREFCheshire_et_al.2008}}

• {{cite web |last1=Kerswill |first1=Paul|last2=Cheshire |first2=Jenny | date=18 March 2009 |title=Multicultural London English: the emergence, acquisition and diffusion of a new variety |url=http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/faculty/activities/539/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604041058/http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/faculty/activities/539/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 June 2009 |ref=CITEREFFASS}}

• {{cite journal|last1=Kerswill|first1=Paul|year=2007|title=Linguistic Innovators: The English of Adolescents in London: Full Research Report|journal=ESRC End of Award Report| url=http://www.esds.ac.uk/doc/6127/mrdoc/pdf/6127uguide.pdf }}
• {{citation |last1=Cheshire |first1=Jenny |title=Contact, the feature pool and the speech community: The emergence of Multicultural London English |url=http://www.uib.no/filearchive/cheshire-et-al-2011-contact.pdf |year=2011 |last2=Kerswill |last3=Fox |last4=Torgersen|first2=Paul |first3=Sue |first4=Eivind|journal=Journal of Sociolinguistics|volume=15 |issue=2|pages=151–196|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9841.2011.00478.x }}
• {{cite web| last1=Cheshire|first1=Jenny|last2=Fox|first2=Sue|last3=Kerwill|first3=Paul|last4=Torgerson|first4=Eivind|year=2005|title=Reversing 'drift': Changes in the London diphthong system|url=http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fss/projects/linguistics/innovators/documents/uklvc5.pdf|website=University of Lancaster |ref=CITEREFCheshire_et_al.2005}}
• {{cite web| last1=Lindsey |first1=Geoff | year=2011 | title=english speech services {{!}} Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE|url=http://englishspeechservices.com/blog/accent-of-the-year-sibilants-in-mle/|access-date=2 December 2015 }}

{{refend}}

• David Sutcliffe, Black British English, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982.
• [http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fss/projects/linguistics/innovators/documents/Oxford_Kerswill_Nov07_000.ppt Linguistic innovators: the English of adolescents in London], Oxford Graduate Seminar, 12 November 2007 (ppt).
• Paul Kerswill and Eivind Torgersen, [https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fss/projects/linguistics/innovators/documents/nwav34_web_000.pdf Endogenous change in inner-London teenage speech as the generator of vowel innovations] (ppt).

• Paul Kerswill's Multicultural London English Page, [https://www.york.ac.uk/language/research/projects/mle/ Multicultural London English – Language and Linguistic Science, The University of York]
• Paul Kerswill: A new urban dialect in a connected world: Multicultural London English (lecture given at Shaanxi Normal University, 2019), [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xQHUPcBbqt8]
• Emily Ashton, [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/research/story/0,,1752000,00.html Learn Jafaikan in Two Minutes], The Guardian, 12 April 2006.

{{English dialects by continent}}

{{Black British topics}}

Category:20th-century establishments in England

Category:Languages attested from the 20th century

Category:City colloquials

Category:Sociolects

Category:English language in England

Category:English language in London

Category:Multiculturalism in the United Kingdom

Category:Working-class culture in England

Category:Youth culture in the United Kingdom