Muxe

In Juchitán de Zaragoza, a Zapotec culture of Oaxaca (southeastern Mexico), a muxe (also spelled muxhe; {{IPA|zap|muʃeʔ|}}) is a person assigned male at birth who adopts aspects of feminine gender roles, including dress, behavior, and social standing. The extent to which muxes present with feminine or masculine gender identities depends on location, social reception, and individual preference, among other factors. They are commonly defined as a third gender which is neither male or female.Chiñas, Beverly (1995). Isthmus Zapotec attitudes toward sex and gender anomalies, pp. 293-302 in Stephen O. Murray (ed.), "Latin American Male Homosexualities" Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

Chiñas (p. 294) defines muxe as "persons who appear to be predominantly male but display certain female characteristics" and fill a "third gender role between men and women, taking some of the characteristics of each."{{Cite journal |last=Maiale |first=Brenda |date=2010 |title=Muxe as Hyper-Tehuana: "We Are That Kind of Women" |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e652962011-001 |doi=10.1037/e652962011-001 |access-date=2021-06-04 |website=PsycEXTRA Dataset}} Muxe identity not only involves gender identity and presentation, but also a preservation of Zapotec culture and customs.{{Cite book |last=Mirandé |first=Alfredo |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1k3s9w2 |title=Behind the Mask: Gender Hybridity in a Zapotec Community |date=2017 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-3544-6 |jstor=j.ctt1k3s9w2}}

Etymology

Although the exact etymology of the Zapotec word {{Wikt-lang|es|muxe}} is unknown, it is thought to derive from the Spanish word for "woman", {{Wikt-lang|es|mujer}}.{{Cite news|url=http://origin-www.goethe.de/mmo/priv/4038800-STANDARD.pdf|title=Muxe: el tercer sexo|last=Bennholdt-Thomsen|first=Veronika|year=2008|agency=Goethe Institut|language=es|access-date=March 13, 2016}} In the 16th-century, the letter x had a sound similar to "sh" (see {{Section link|History of the Spanish language|Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants}}). The word muxe is a gender-neutral term, among many other Zapoteco words.{{Cite journal |last1=Ramirez |first1=Jacobo |last2=Munar |first2=Ana María |date=November 2022 |title=Hybrid gender colonization: The case of muxes |journal=Gender, Work & Organization |language=en |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=1868–1889 |doi=10.1111/gwao.12884 |issn=0968-6673|doi-access=free }}

Gender and identity in Zapotec culture

In contrast to Mexico's majority mestizo culture, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec has a predominantly Zapotec population, representing one of the country's indigenous peoples. Other Zapotec communities, outside the Isthmus, have similar third gender roles, such as the biza'ah of Teotitlán del Valle. One study estimates that 6 percent of males in an Isthmus Zapotec community in the early 1970s were muxes.Rymph, David (1974). Cross-sex behavior in an Isthmus Zapotec village. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Mexico City.

It is unknown if the Zapotec three-gender system predates Spanish colonization due to the lack of sources that survived the colonial period. Although there is evidence of homosexual activity in indigenous Mesoamerican societies{{Cite book |last=Sigal |first=Pete |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1220pch |title=The Flower and the Scorpion: Sexuality and Ritual in Early Nahua Culture |date=2011 |publisher=Duke University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctv1220pch |jstor=j.ctv1220pch |isbn=978-0-8223-5138-2}} and accounts of cross-dressing given spiritual or ritual significance,{{Cite book |last=Sigal |first=Pete |title=Infamous Desire: Male Homosexuality in Colonial Latin America |date=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press }} little historical evidence exists that sheds light on the origins of muxes.

= Mythological origins =

According to a popular myth in Juchitán, San Vicente, the patron saint of Juchitán, had three sacks, one with women, one with men, and another that contained a third gender. He accidentally ripped open the sack containing the mixed-gender individuals in Juchitán, giving the community more third-gender people than the rest of the world.{{Cite web |last=Weems |first=Mickey |date=2011 |title=San Vicente |url=http://www.qualiafolk.com/2011/12/08/san-vicente/ |url-status=dead |website=Qualia Encyclopedia of Gay Folklife}} Another variation states that the muxes were so boisterous that they ripped open the bag once San Vicente got to Oaxaca. The myth describes why more muxes are present in Juchitán than in other societies.

= Identity =

Identification as a muxe is partly societal and partly individual. The individual's family and neighbors observe sons for signs of feminine behavior in their childhood. Once identifying a muxe, mothers may encourage their muxe children to participate in work usually done by women and provide feminine clothing for them.{{Cite news |last=Torres |first=Núria López |date=2021-09-27 |title=Intimate Portraits of Mexico's Third-Gender Muxes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/27/travel/mexico-muxes-third-gender.html |access-date=2025-03-12 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite web |date=2007-08-23 |title=HOMOSEXUALIDAD ENTRE LOS ZAPOTECOS DEL ISTMO DE TEHUANTEPEC: El caso de los muxe |url=http://isisweb.com.ar/muxe.htm |access-date=2025-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823230212/http://isisweb.com.ar/muxe.htm |archive-date=23 August 2007 }}

American anthropologist Beverly Chiñas explained in 1995 that in the Zapotec culture, gender and sexual identity is seen as an inherent attribute rather than something that can be chosen or changed.Chiñas, Beverly (1995). Isthmus Zapotec attitudes toward sex and gender anomalies, pp. 293-302 in Stephen O. Murray (ed.), "Latin American Male Homosexualities" Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press Most people view their gender as something God has given them and few muxes desire genital surgery.

Although there are individuals within Juchitán who identify as gay and transgender, these individuals do not usually overlap with those who identify as muxe. Gay men identify as men, dress like men, and do work associated with men, while muxes adopt feminine identities to some extent.

Muxes very drastically in terms of gender presentation and expression. Many muxes have masculine and feminine personas, with both a masculine birth name and a feminine muxe name. Most literature uses feminine pronouns when muxes are in feminine clothing and masculine pronouns when muxes use a masculine presentation. Some may dress in traditional feminine clothing all the time, while some may only dress up on special occasions or in certain places. Likewise, some muxes prefer to identify solely with their feminine names, present as feminine, and take on feminine work.

However, to many muxes in Juchitán, gender presentation as "female or male" is less important than living as a Zapoteco individual. Whereas identifying as transgender solely involves a person's gender identity, being a muxe requires one preserve and respect traditional Zapotec culture, regardless of whether they present as masculine or feminine at any given time.

= Societal role =

Rather than a gender identity that defines itself in opposition to the gender binary, muxes occupy a defined gender category with a distinct role within Juchitán society. Juchitán society is matrifocal, and Juchitán women have important and valuable societal roles. For instance, women control Juchitán's economy, as many women are at once matriarchs, artisans, and merchants. Muxes participate in these feminine spheres of Juchitán society, such as artisan work, household maintenance, and merchantry. While men and women often leave the parent's household to get married, muxes are traditionally supposed to live in their parents' household in order to care for aging parents. The help that muxes provide with household/artisan/merchant work and their care for their parents in adulthood is posited as a reason for why some families view muxes as a blessing.

Some muxes marry women and have children while others choose men as sexual or romantic partners.Stephen, Lynn (2002). "Latin American Perspectives," Issue 123, Vol.29 No.2, March 2002, pp. 41-59. {{cite web |title=Sexualities and Genders in Zapotec Oaxaca. |url=http://www.uky.edu/~tmute2/mexico/MexWeb/Mex+PDFs/stephan-gender-zapotec.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129073904/http://www.uky.edu/~tmute2/mexico/MexWeb/Mex%20PDFs/stephan-gender-zapotec.pdf |archive-date=2007-01-29}} {{small|(98.6 KiB)}}MIANO, M. (2002). Hombre, mujer y muxe' en el Istmo de Tehuantepec. México: Plaza y Valdés. CONACULTA-INAH. Although it is looked down upon by wider society, muxes sometimes pay straight men for sexual relationships.

Muxes may be vestidas ("dressed", i.e. wearing traditional women's clothing) or pintadas ("painted", i.e. wearing make-up but not women's clothing). The phenomenon of muxes dressing in clothes typically worn by women is fairly recent, beginning in the 1950s and gaining popularity until nearly all of the younger generation of muxes today are vestidas.Gómez Regalado, Amaranta (2005) {{cite web |title=Transcending. |url=https://www.2spirits.com/TrascendiendoEnglishversion.pdf |archive-url= |archive-date=}} {{small|(50.0 KiB)}} Muxes termed vestidas tradicionales dress with traditional Zapotec clothing all or most of the time, including huipiles, which are handmade dresses composed of colourful fabrics.{{Cite journal |last1=Diehl |first1=Alessandra |last2=Vieira |first2=Denise Leite |last3=Zaneti |first3=Marina Milograna |last4=Fanganiello |first4=Ana |last5=Sharan |first5=Pratap |last6=Robles |first6=Rebecca |last7=de Jesus Mari |first7=Jair |date=August 2017 |title=Social stigma, legal and public health barriers faced by the third gender phenomena in Brazil, India and Mexico: Travestis, hijras and muxes |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0020764017706989 |journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry |language=en |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=389–399 |doi=10.1177/0020764017706989 |issn=0020-7640 |pmid=28552025}} In contrast, vestidas modernas dress in modern feminine clothing.

== Velas ==

"Las Velas" are a general name for festivals celebrated in Zapotec cultures since pre-Columbian times.{{Cite web |last=Osegueda |first=Rodrigo |date=2020-09-01 |title=Las velas de Juchitán: fiestas comunitarias de mezcal, cerveza y color |url=https://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/las-velas-de-juchitan-fiestas-comunitarias-de-mezcal-cerveza-y-color.html |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=México Desconocido |language=es}} The four-day celebration consists of a mass; the regada de frutas (tossing of fruit); the vela, an all-night dance; and the lavada de ollas (washing the pots) held the afternoon after the vela.{{Cite book |last=Holzer |first=Brigitte |title=Economía de fiestas, fiestas como economía |publisher=Instituto Oaxaqueño de las Culturas |location=Oaxaca Mexico |publication-date=1997 |pages=79–96 |language=Spanish |trans-title=The economy of festivals and festivals as economy}} Muxes play important economic roles in the vela festivals, where they work as artisans to provide the traditional dress worn by many in attendance. Muxes were banned from wearing traditional clothing to the vela festivities for sixteen years, during which they fought for their right to participate in traditional clothing, until their return in 2019.{{Cite web |date=2019-05-28 |title=Vuelven a las fiestas las otras hijas de San vicente |url=https://oaxaca.eluniversal.com.mx/especiales/28-05-2019/vuelven-las-fiestas-las-otras-hijas-de-san-vicente |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=Oaxaca |language=es}}

La Vela de las Intrépidas, a vela that takes place in early November, is the most prominent of the velas organized by Las Intrépidas (a prominent muxe organization) which celebrates muxe identity and Zapotec society.{{Cite thesis |last=Truett |first=Joshua L. |title=Performing Indigenous Fiesta Resistance: Velas, Muxes, and Zapotec Style |date=2020 |publisher=The Ohio State University |url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/etd/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=osu1607023887626163 |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=Enrique Salvador Guzmán |first=Luis |date=2018 |title=La Vela de las Auténticas Intrépidas Buscadoras del Peligro como parte de identidad de género en Juchitán de Zaragoza, Oaxaca |url=https://www.comecso.com/ciencias-sociales-agenda-nacional/cs/article/download/1357/1089/ |journal=Los mundos simbólicos: Estudios de la cultura y las religiones |volume=15 |pages=823–839}} Since generosity and gift-giving is highly valued within indigenous Juchitán society, muxes compete to finance the vela. After the end of the celebration, one muxe is crowned as queen, named the "mayordomo."

= Social acceptance =

Although muxes in Juchitán are socially accepted and, in many cases, valued, outside of Juchitán, muxes face oppression and hostility. Some families see muxes as a blessing, while other muxes are forbidden by their families from deviating from a masculine gender role. Muxes from larger, more Westernized towns face ample discrimination, especially from cis men due to attitudes introduced by Catholicism. Gender variance and same-sex desire in wealthier communities of the region are more likely to follow a Western taxonomy of gay, bisexual and transgender. Such individuals are also more likely to remain "in the closet". Since muxes belong to indigenous communities, many of which are systematically disadvantaged, they generally belong to the lower classes of society.

Prominent Muxes

= Las Intrépidas =

Las Auténticas Intrépidas Buscadoras del Peligro are a muxe organization founded in 1975 composed of and representative of muxes within Zapotec community. Las Intrépidas are well-integrated into Juchitán, particularly due to their ties to the Catholic Church and other political entities in the community, and are thus well-respected. Las Intrépidas members can come from various walks of life and may receive more employment than other muxes; for example, they are often hired around town at quinceañeras. Las Intrépidas also advocate for sex education, AIDS awareness, and domestic abuse support. Since they require an entrance fee, many of its members are from high social standing.

= Individuals =

Amaranta Gómez Regalado from Juchitán de Zaragoza is a prominent activist for LGBTQ+ rights, HIV prevention, disabled rights, gender equality, and the promotion of indigenous culture.{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZZ2NPJtMnE |title=Amaranta Gómez |date=2018-10-29 |last=ADN Opinión |access-date=2025-03-07 |via=YouTube}}{{Cite web |date=January 11, 2016 |title=Archived profile from Amaranta Gómez Regalado for the WorldOut Games in Copenhagen 2009 |url=//www.copenhagen2009.org/Conference/Keynote_Speakers/Amaranta_Gomez_Regalado.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721073144/http://www.copenhagen2009.org/Conference/Keynote_Speakers/Amaranta_Gomez_Regalado.aspx |archive-date=July 21, 2009 |access-date=March 13, 2016 |website=Amaranta Gómez Regalado – WorldOut Games 2009 |publisher=Wayback Machine Internet Archive}} In 2003, Regalado gained international prominence as a congressional candidate for the México Posible party in the Oaxaca state elections.{{Cite news|url=http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2003/06/05/ls-amaranta.html|title=La nueva visibilidad lésbico-gay|last=Medina|first=Antonio|date=June 5, 2003|work=LETRA S|access-date=March 13, 2016|via=La Jornada}} She later earned a Bachelor’s degree in social anthropology at the University of Veracruz, the first muxe to have done so.{{Cite web |last=Peralta Vázquez |first=Claudia |title="Soy la primera muxe en obtener un título profesional": Amaranta Gómez |date=18 February 2016 |url=https://www.uv.mx/prensa/general/soy-la-primera-muxe-en-obtener-un-titulo-profesional-amaranta-gomez/}}

Lukas Avendaño is an emerging performance artist whose recent work constitutes a queer performatic intervention of Mexican nationalistic representations, particularly that of Zapotec Tehuana women. Avendaño, born on the Isthmus, embodies the complex identity of muxes. His cross-dressing performance interweaves ritual dances with autobiographical passages and actions that involve audience members, in order to challenge the widely-held view of a gay-friendly indigenous culture and point towards the existence of lives that negotiate pain and loneliness with self-affirming pride.{{Cite journal|last=Stambaugh|first=Antonio Prieto|date=2014-01-01|title=RepresentaXión" de un muxe: la identidad performática de Lukas Avendaño|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/latin_american_theatre_review/v048/48.1.stambaugh.html|journal=Latin American Theatre Review|volume=48|issue=1|pages=31–53|doi=10.1353/ltr.2014.0030|s2cid=141999742|issn=2161-0576}}

Alex Orozco is an actress, playwright and theater director that has won several regional awards with "Bala'na", a monologue about Muxe sex workers in the state of Oaxaca.{{Cite news|url=https://camaraoscura.mx/balana-una-historia-contada-desde-la-intimidad-la-identidad-y-la-muerte/|title=Bala'na, una historia contada desde la intimidad, la identidad y la muerte|date=March 13, 2022|via=Cámara Oscura}}

Marven is a food vendor often referred to by her business name Lady Tacos de Canasta. Her first notable appearance was a viral video taken while she was selling food at a 2016 Gay Pride march. Since then, she has grown in popularity and been featured on multiple media outlets. She was featured in Episode 3 of Taco Chronicles, the 2019 Netflix documentary series, in which she discusses both her business and gender. She was involved in multiple reported incidents with police in February and July 2019.{{Cite web|url=https://www.chilango.com/comida/lady-tacos-de-canasta/|title=Lady Tacos de Canasta: hay de chapulines, iguana, arroz con leche...|last1=M|first1=Sthefany |last2=Mandujano |date=2018-08-28|language=es-MX|access-date=2019-08-12}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.milenio.com/policia/lady-tacos-canasta-policias-agreden-tiran-puesto|title=A Lady Tacos de Canasta, policías la agreden y le tiran su puesto|website=www.milenio.com|date=8 February 2019 |access-date=2019-08-12}}{{Cite web|url=https://heraldodemexico.com.mx/tendencias/autoridades-intentan-retirar-a-lady-tacos-de-canasta-en-alcaldia-cuauhemoc/|title=Autoridades intentan retirar a Lady tacos de canasta, en alcaldía Cuauhémoc|date=2019-07-29|website=El Heraldo de México|language=es-MX|access-date=2019-08-12}}{{Cite web|url=https://culturacolectiva.com/movies/taco-chronicles-netflix-mexico-food-documentary-review|title='The Taco Chronicles' Does Justice To Mexico's Misunderstood Street Food Staple|date=2019-07-18|website=culturacolectiva.com|language=en|access-date=2019-08-12}}

References

External links

ExandasDocs. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bz-NL1HcGaA "Muxes of Juchitán"]. Time 9:47. YouTube.com, Sept. 4, 2007.
CNN.com. [http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/international/2010/05/11/wus.men.women.muxes.bk.a.cnn "The Muxes of Mexico - Part 1"]. Time 8:38. May 11, 2010.
CNN.com. [http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/international/2010/05/11/wus.men.women.muxes.bk.b.cnn "The Muxes of Mexico - Part 2"]. Time 8:13. May 11, 2010.
CNN.com. [http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/international/2010/05/11/wus.men.women.muxes.bk.c.cnn "The Muxes of Mexico - Part 3"]. Time 6:31. May 11, 2010.
vice.com. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141003125943/http://www.vice.com/mexicalia/oaxacas-third-gender "OAXACA'S THIRD GENDER"]. Time 22:21. July 9, 2013.
[https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2017/oct/27/muxes-documentary-the-mexican-town-where-gender-is-fluid "Born this way: the Mexican town where gender is fluid"] (also hosted [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iiek6JxYJLs&t=0s&list=PLa_1MA_DEorHLJLp3Qwq2d_ozQ6p9Cm_B&index=3 on Youtube] and [https://vimeo.com/239791799 on Vimeo]), a short documentary released in October 2017, directed by Shaul Schwarz, produced by [http://www.reelpeakfilms.com/ Reel Peak Films], and commissioned by The Guardian and [https://www.filmmakerfund.com/ The Filmmaker Fund], interviews several residents of Juchitán and their family members about the experiences and perceptions of muxes. Spanish with English subtitles.
Facebook.com. "[https://www.facebook.com/AutenticasIntrepidasBuscadorasDelPeligro/?locale=es_LA Las Auténticas Intrepidas Buscadores del Peligro]".
Nicola Ókin Frioli Photography. [https://www.nicolaokinphotography.com/we-are-princesses-in-a-land-of-machos "We are Princesses in a land of Machos"]. 2004.
Credo Reference. [https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6NTc2NjQ=?q=muxe&aid=239116 "Muxes"]. 2019.