National security of China#Armed forces overview

Until 1961, the People's Liberation Army focused on planning for the possibility of a United States ground incursion which leadership theorized could come through the Korean Peninsula, Taiwan, or Vietnam.{{Cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Fiona S. |title=Under the Nuclear Shadow: China's Information-Age Weapons in International Security |date=2025 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-26103-4 |location=}}{{Rp|page=74}} Chinese leadership assumed that a US incursion would also include US attempts to bomb Chinese cities with nuclear weapons.{{Rp|page=74}}

Anticipating risks of US or Soviet invasions, China launched the Third Front campaign to develop industrial and military facilities in the country's interior, where it would be less vulnerable to attack.{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Marquis |url= |title=Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |location=New Haven |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k |jstor=j.ctv3006z6k |oclc=1348572572 |s2cid=253067190}}{{Rp|page=|pages=44-49}}

The Sino-Soviet border clashes and the concentration of Soviet military forces near the border between the two countries meant that after 1969, Chinese leadership viewed a Soviet incursion as China's biggest security threat.{{Rp|page=74}}

General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping introduced the holistic security concept in 2014, which he defined as taking "the security of the people as compass, political security as its roots, economic security as its pillar, military security, cultural security, and cultural security as its protections, and that relies on the promotion of international security."{{Cite book |last1=Shinn |first1=David H. |title=China's Relations with Africa: a New Era of Strategic Engagement |last2=Eisenman |first2=Joshua |date=2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-21001-0 |location=New York |author-link=David H. Shinn}}{{Rp|page=3}} The holistic security concept also emphasizes the need for energy security.{{Cite book |last=Garlick |first=Jeremy |title=Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption |date=2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-25231-8}}{{Rp|page=77}} Xi created CCP's National Security Commission (NSC), which focuses on holistic security and addresses both external and internal security matters. Since its establishment, the NSC has been chaired by CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping.{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |title=The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy |date=2023 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8 |location=Stanford, California |pages= |doi=10.1515/9781503634152 |oclc=1331741429 |author-link=Suisheng Zhao}}{{Rp|page=180}}

With regard to Chinese abroad, China's 2015 National Security Law states that China will take necessary measures to protect the security and interests "of Chinese citizens, organizations, and bodies abroad."{{Rp|page=179}}

At the 2022 meeting of Boao Forum for Asia, Xi proposed the Global Security Initiative.{{Rp|page=158}} It identifies six commitments: (1) common, comprehensive, cooperative, and sustainable security; (2) respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries; (3) abiding by the purpose and principles of the UN Charter; (4) taking the security concerns of all countries seriously; (5) peacefully resolving disputes between countries through dialogue; and (6) maintaining security in both traditional and non-traditional fields.{{Rp|page=158}} The principles outlined by the Global Security Initiative are long-standing elements of China's security policy.{{Rp|page=158}} As of 2023, articulations of the Global Security Initiative have primarily focused on broad principles and included little operational detail.{{Rp|page=158}}

The armed forces of China are composed of the People's Liberation Army (PLA), the People's Armed Police (PAP), the reserves, and the militia.{{sfn|Pollpeter|Allen|2012|p=50}} The PLA has four services: the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Rocket Force; the Rocket Force is responsible for land-based nuclear and conventional missiles.{{sfn|Saunders et al.|2019|pp=5-6}} The paramilitary PAP performs internal and - in wartime - rear-area security missions; it also controls the China Coast Guard.{{sfn|Wuthnow|2019|pp=1-2}}

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Central Military Commission (CMC) is responsible for creating PLA policy.{{Cite web |first=Brian |last=Waidelich |date=November 11, 2022 |title=China's New Military Leadership |url=https://www.cna.org/our-media/indepth/2022/11/chinas-new-miliatry-leadership-possible-strengths-and-weaknesses |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=www.cna.org |language=en-us}} The CMC is led by the Chairman, who serves as the commander-in-chief of the PLA. The commission has two to three vice chairmen, each of whom is a general in the PLA ground forces, and seven other members representing other various branches of the PLA. Operational control of the PLA is administered by the CCP Central Military Commission and the Ministry of National Defense.{{Cite news |title=What China's New Central Military Commission Tells Us About Xi's Military Strategy |url=https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/what-chinas-new-central-military-commission-tells-us-about-xis-military-strategy |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=Asia Society |language=en}} The PLA headquarters are categorized into four departments: General Staff Department, General Political Department, General Logistics Department and General Armaments Department.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

In 2005, China announced that it had downsized its military by 200,000 troops in order to optimize force structures and increase combat capabilities.{{Cite web |title=Govt. White Papers - china.org.cn |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/book/194482.htm |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=www.china.org.cn}} The number of active-duty soldiers decreased to 2.3 million from as high as 3.2 million in 1987.{{Cite journal |first=M. Taylor |last=Fravel |title=Shifts in Warfare and Party Unity: Explaining China's Changes in Military Strategy |url=https://direct.mit.edu/isec/article-abstract/42/3/37/12182/Shifts-in-Warfare-and-Party-Unity-Explaining-China?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=2023-02-22 |journal=International Security|date=2018 |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=37–83 |doi=10.1162/ISEC_a_00304 |hdl=1721.1/118865 |hdl-access=free }} The changes included eliminating layers in the command hierarchy, reducing non-combat units, such as schools and farms, and reprogramming officer duties. The ground forces were reduced in numbers, while the navy, air force, and rocket forces were strengthened.{{Cite news |title=The PLA's New Organizational Structure: What is Known, Unknown and Speculation (Part 1) |url=https://jamestown.org/program/the-plas-new-organizational-structure-what-is-known-unknown-and-speculation-part-1/ |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=Jamestown |language=en-US}} Reservists number an estimated 500,000 to 600,000 and paramilitary forces in the PAP number an estimated 1.5 million.{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Harjeet |title=Pentagon's South Asia Defence and Strategic Year Book 2008}}

The Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China is differentiated from the Central Military Commission of the CCP. According to Article 93 of the state constitution, the CMC directs the armed forces of the country and is composed of a chairman, vice chairmen, and members whose terms run concurrently with the National People's Congress. The commission is responsible to the National People's Congress and its Standing Committee.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

{{Excerpt|Military budget of China|only=paragraph|paragraphs=1-3}}

{{Excerpt|Paramilitary forces of China|only=paragraph}}

China's internal security apparatus is made up of the Ministry of State Security (MSS) and the Ministry of Public Security (MPS), the PAP, the PLA, and the state judicial, procuratorial, and penal systems. The Ministry of Public Security oversees all domestic police activity in China, including the PAP. The ministry is responsible for police operations and prisons and has dedicated departments for internal political, economic, and communications security. Its lowest organizational units are public security stations, which maintain close day-to-day contact with the public. The PAP, which sustains an estimated total strength of 1.5 million personnel, is organized into 45 divisions: internal security police, border defense personnel, guards for government buildings and embassies, and police communications specialists.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

The Ministry of State Security was established in 1983 to ensure "the security of the state through effective measures against enemy agents, spies, and counterrevolutionary activities designed to sabotage or overthrow China's socialist system." The ministry is guided by a series of laws enacted in 1993, 1994, and 1997 that replaced the "counter-revolutionary" crime statutes. The ministry's operations include intelligence collection, both domestic and foreign.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

China has developed an efficient, well-funded internal security apparatus which is tasked with stability maintenance, or "weiwen".{{cite news |title=Well-Oiled Security Apparatus in China Stifles Calls for Change |author=Andrew Jacobs |author2=Jonathan Ansfield |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/01/world/asia/01china.html?ref=todayspaper |newspaper=The New York Times |date=February 28, 2011 |access-date=March 1, 2011 }} According to a study conducted by Tsinghua University, based on published police budgets, $77 billion, (514 billion yuan) was appropriated for internal security in 2009, a budget item which is rapidly increasing.{{cite web |url=http://chinaelectionsblog.net/?p=5220 |title=New thinking on stability maintenance|author=Social Development Research Group, Tsinghua University Department of Sociology |date= April 2010 |publisher=Tsinghua University |language=en|trans-title=long-term social stability via institutionalised expression of interests |format=translation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723041725/http://chinaelectionsblog.net/?p=5220 |archive-date=July 23, 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=March 3, 2011 |quote=According to statistics, this year's budget for internal security has reached 514 billion yuan. The "Law Enforcement Situation in the 2009 Budget and This Year's Draft Budget Report" show that public safety expenditures increased by 16% last year and will be augmented by a further 8.9% this year. }}

{{See also|National People's Congress decision on Hong Kong national security legislation}}

The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is considered a part of China, so it has a responsibility to protect national security of China. In Hong Kong, national security law (to fulfill Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23) has not been passed yet. It was attempted in 2003 but withdrawn due to mass demonstrations. Since the major social movements in 2014 and 2019–20, the Central Government of China has had concerns about national security, and has highlighted foreign forces interfering in domestic affairs. The Chinese Government has pressured Hong Kong to enact national security laws many times. Since some Hong Kong legislators refuse to pass any bills related to China, it is unlikely that a national security law will be passed in the foreseeable future. To block the national security loophole in Hong Kong, in 2020, China's National People's Congress passed a National Security Law for Hong Kong which bypasses Hong Kong's local legislation.{{Cite news|last=Hernández|first=Javier C.|date=2020-06-30|title=Harsh Penalties, Vaguely Defined Crimes: Hong Kong's Security Law Explained|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/30/world/asia/hong-kong-security-law-explain.html|access-date=2020-07-12|issn=0362-4331}}

A Macau national security law was passed in 2009.{{cn|date=September 2023}}

• Law enforcement in China
• Public safety network

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• {{cite report |editor1-last=Pollpeter |editor1-first=Kevin |editor2-last=Allen |editor2-first=Kenneth W. |date=14 June 2012 |title=The PLA as Organization v2.0 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD1082742 |publisher=China Aerospace Studies Institute }}
• {{cite book |editor1-last=Saunders |editor1-first=Phillip C. |editor2-last=Ding |editor2-first=Arthur S. |editor3-last=Scobell |editor3-first=Andrew |editor4-last=Yang |editor4-first=Andrew N.D. |editor5-last=Joel |editor5-first=Wuthnow |title=Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA: Assessing Chinese Military Reforms |url=https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Publications/Books/Chairman-Xi-Remakes-the-PLA/ |date=2019 |publisher=National Defense University Press |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1070233420 |ref={{harvid|Saunders et al.|2019}}}}
• {{cite book |url=https://inss.ndu.edu/Portals/82/China%20SP%2014%20Final%20for%20Web.pdf |title=China's Other Army: The People's Armed Police in an Era of Reform |last=Wuthnow |first=Joel |date=16 April 2019 |publisher=Institute for National Strategic Studies |location=Washington |access-date=3 October 2019 |archive-date=4 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704193636/https://inss.ndu.edu/Portals/82/China%20SP%2014%20Final%20for%20Web.pdf |url-status=live }}

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