Login
Login

Neurodevelopmental framework for learning

Neurodevelopmental framework for learning, like all frameworks, is an organizing structure through which learners and learning can be understood. Intelligence theories and neuropsychology inform many of them. The framework described below is a neurodevelopmental framework for learning. The neurodevelopmental framework was developed by the All Kinds of Minds Institute in collaboration with Dr. Mel Levine and the University of North Carolina's Clinical Center for the Study of Development and Learning. It is similar to other neuropsychological frameworks, including Alexander Luria's cultural-historical psychology and psychological activity theory, but also draws from disciplines such as speech-language pathology, occupational therapy, and physical therapy. It also shares components with other frameworks, some of which are listed below. However, it does not include a general intelligence factor (abbreviated g), since the framework is used to describe learners in terms of profiles of strengths and weaknesses, as opposed to using labels, diagnoses, or broad ability levels. This framework was also developed to link with academic skills, such as reading and writing. Implications for education are discussed below as well as the connections to and compatibilities with several major educational policy issues.

This framework consists of 8 constructs, sometimes referred to as systems.Levine, M.D. (1998). Developmental Variation and Learning Disorders, Second Edition. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.

Constructs

  • attention – mental energy, processing incoming information, and regulating outputPosner, M.I., & Rothbart, M.K. (2007). Educating the Human Brain. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • temporal-sequential ordering – processing and production of material that is serial{{cite journal | last1 = Bishoff-Grethe | first1 = A. | last2 = Goedert | first2 = K.M. | last3 = Willingham | first3 = D.T. | last4 = Grafton | first4 = S.T. | year = 2004 | title = Neural substrates of response-based sequence learning using fMRI | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 16 | issue = 1| pages = 127–138 | doi = 10.1162/089892904322755610 | pmid = 15006042 | s2cid = 832676 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Parmentier | first1 = F.B.R. | last2 = Andres | first2 = P. | last3 = Elford | first3 = G. | last4 = Jones | first4 = D.M. | year = 2006 | title = Organization of visuo-spatial serial memory: interaction of temporal order with spatial and temporal grouping | journal = Psychological Research | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 200–217 | doi = 10.1007/s00426-004-0212-7 | pmid = 15844005 | s2cid = 468986 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Zorzi | first1 = M. | last2 = Priftis | first2 = K. | last3 = Meneghello | first3 = F. | last4 = Marenzi | first4 = R. | last5 = Umilt | first5 = C. | year = 2006 | title = The spatial representation of numerical and non-numerical sequences: Evidence from neglect | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 44 | issue = 7| pages = 1061–1067 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.025 | pmid = 16356515 | s2cid = 34616356 }}
  • spatial-ordering – processing and production of material that is visual and/or spatial{{cite journal | last1 = Garderen | first1 = D. | year = 2006 | title = Spatial visualization, visual imagery, and mathematical problem solving of students with varying abilities | journal = Journal of Learning Disabilities | volume = 39 | issue = 6| pages = 496–506 | doi = 10.1177/00222194060390060201 | pmid = 17165617 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Mammarella | first1 = I. | last2 = Cornoldi | first2 = C. | last3 = Pazzaglia | first3 = F. | last4 = Toso | first4 = C. | last5 = Grimoldi | first5 = M. | last6 = Vio | first6 = C. | year = 2006 | title = Evidence for a double dissociation between spatial-simultaneous and spatial-sequential working memory in visuospatial (nonverbal) learning disabled children | journal = Brain and Cognition | volume = 62 | issue = 1| pages = 58–67 | doi = 10.1016/j.bandc.2006.03.007 | pmid=16750287| s2cid = 19946786 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Kozhevnikov | first1 = M. | last2 = Motes | first2 = M. | last3 = Hegarty | first3 = M. | year = 2007 | title = Spatial Visualization in Physics Problem Solving | journal = Cognitive Science | volume = 31 | issue = 4| pages = 549–579 | doi = 10.1080/15326900701399897 | pmid = 21635308 | doi-access = free }}
  • memory – storage and retrieval of information (after brief or long delays), or mentally suspending information while using it{{cite journal | last1 = Swanson | first1 = H. | last2 = Jerman | first2 = O. | year = 2007 | title = The influence of working memory on reading growth in subgroups of children with reading disabilities | journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 96 | issue = 4| pages = 249–283 | doi = 10.1016/j.jecp.2006.12.004 | pmid=17437762}}{{cite journal | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | last2 = Hall | first2 = L. K. | year = 2001 | title = Distinguishing short-term memory from working memory | journal = Memory and Cognition | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 1–9 | doi = 10.3758/BF03195735 | pmid = 11277452 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | last1 = Imbo | first1 = I. | last2 = Vandierendonck | first2 = A. | year = 2007 | title = The development of strategy use in elementary school children: Working memory and individual differences | url = https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/373960| journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 96 | issue = 4| pages = 284–309 | doi = 10.1016/j.jecp.2006.09.001 | pmid=17046017| hdl = 1854/LU-373960 | hdl-access = free }}
  • language – understanding and use of linguistic sounds, words, sentences, and discourse{{cite journal | last1 = Katzir | first1 = T. | last2 = Youngsuk | first2 = K. | last3 = Wolf | first3 = M. | last4 = O'Brien | first4 = B. | last5 = Kennedy | first5 = B. | last6 = Lovett | first6 = M. | last7 = Morris | first7 = R. | year = 2006 | title = Reading fluency: The whole is more than the parts | journal = Annals of Dyslexia | volume = 56 | issue = 1| pages = 51–82 | doi = 10.1007/s11881-006-0003-5 | pmid = 17849208 | s2cid = 25800842 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Nagy | first1 = W. | last2 = Berninger | first2 = V. | last3 = Abbott | first3 = R. | year = 2006 | title = Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students | journal = Journal of Educational Psychology | volume = 98 | issue = 1| pages = 134–147 | doi = 10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.134 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Altemeier | first1 = L. | last2 = Jones | first2 = J. | last3 = Abbott | first3 = R. | last4 = Berninger | first4 = V. | year = 2006 | title = Executive functions in becoming writing readers and reading writers: Note taking and report writing in third and fifth graders | journal = Developmental Neuropsychology | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 161–173 | doi = 10.1207/s15326942dn2901_8 | pmid = 16390292 | s2cid = 2317324 }}
  • neuromotor function – control over movement of large muscles, hands, and fingers{{cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = J. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = P. | last3 = Maruff | first3 = P. | last4 = Wilson | first4 = P. | year = 2008 | title = The link between motor impairment level and motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 27 | issue = 2| pages = 270–285 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2008.02.008 | pmid = 18384899 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Bar-Haim | first1 = Y. | last2 = Bart | first2 = O. | year = 2006 | title = Motor function and social participation in kindergarten children | journal = Social Development | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 296–310 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9507.2006.00342.x| doi-broken-date = 22 May 2025 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Contreras-Vidal | first1 = J. | year = 2006 | title = Development of forward models for hand localization and movement control in 6 to 10-year-old children | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 25 | issue = 4–5| pages = 634–645 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2006.07.006 | pmid = 17011659 }}
  • social cognition – navigation of interaction with others, including verbal and nonverbal tactics{{cite journal | last1 = Blake | first1 = R. | last2 = Shiffrar | first2 = M. | year = 2007 | title = Perception of Human Motion | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 58 | issue = 47| pages = 47–73 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190152 | pmid = 16903802 | s2cid = 5867069 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Blakemore | first1 = S.J. | year = 2007 | title = Brain development during adolescence | journal = Education Review | volume = 20 | issue = 1| pages = 82–90 }}{{cite book|author1=Brewer, M.B.|author2=Hewstone, M.|name-list-style=amp|year=2004|title=Social Cognition|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Blackwell Publishing}}

{{cite journal | last1 = Holtgraves | first1 = T.M. | last2 = Kashima | first2 = Y. | year = 2008 | title = Language, meaning, and social cognition | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 12 | issue = 1| pages = 73–94 | doi = 10.1177/1088868307309605 | pmid=18453473| s2cid = 33579992 }}

  • higher order cognition – complex and sophisticated thinking{{cite journal | last1 = Russ | first1 = R. | last2 = Scherr | first2 = R. | last3 = Hammer | first3 = D. | last4 = Mineska | first4 = J. | year = 2008 | title = Recognizing mechanistic reasoning in student scientific inquiry: A framework for discourse analysis developed from philosophy of science | journal = Science Studies and Science Education | volume = 92 | issue =3 | pages = 499–525 | doi = 10.1002/sce.20264 | bibcode = 2008SciEd..92..499R | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | last1 = Hertzog | first1 = N. | year = 2007 | title = Transporting Pedagogy: Implementing the project approach in two first grade classrooms | journal = Journal of Advanced Academics | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 530–564 |doi=10.4219/jaa-2007-559 | s2cid = 145808825 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Amsterlaw | first1 = J. | year = 2006 | title = Children's beliefs about everyday reasoning | journal = Child Development | volume = 77 | issue = 2| pages = 443–464 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00881.x | pmid=16611183}}

In addition to the 8 constructs, this framework includes several "cross-construct" phenomena: rate alignment (working at optimal speed), strategy use (working and thinking tactically), chunk size capacity – the amount of material that can be processed, stored or generated, and metacognition (degree of knowledge about learning and insight into one's own neurodevelopmental strengths and weaknesses).{{cite journal | last1 = Benjamin | first1 = A. S. | last2 = Bird | first2 = R. D. | year = 2006 | title = Metacognitive control of the spacing of study repetitions | journal = Journal of Memory and Language | volume = 55 | pages = 126–137 | doi = 10.1016/j.jml.2006.02.003 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Broekkamp | first1 = H. | last2 = Van Hout-Wolter | first2 = B.H.A.M. | year = 2007 | title = Students' adaptation of study strategies when preparing for classroom tests | journal = Educational Psychology | volume = 19 | issue = 4| pages = 401–428 | doi = 10.1007/s10648-006-9025-0 | s2cid = 145415194 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Flavell | first1 = J. | year = 1979 | title = Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new era of cognitive-developmental inquiry | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 34 | issue = 1| pages = 906–911 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906 | s2cid = 8841485 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Halford | first1 = G.S. | last2 = Wilson | first2 = W.H. | last3 = Phillips | first3 = S. | year = 1998 | title = Processing capacity defined by relational complexity: Implications for comparative, developmental, and cognitive psychology | journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 21 | issue = 6| pages = 803–831 | doi = 10.1017/S0140525X98001769 | pmid = 10191879 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Hofer | first1 = B.K. | year = 2004 | title = Epistemological understanding as a metacognitive process: Thinking aloud during online searching | journal = Educational Psychologist | volume = 39 | issue = 1| pages = 43–55 | doi = 10.1207/s15326985ep3901_5 | s2cid = 9660431 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Lungu | first1 = O. V. | last2 = Liu | first2 = T. | last3 = Waechter | first3 = T. | last4 = Willingham | first4 = D. T. | last5 = Ashe | first5 = J. | year = 2007 | title = Strategic modulation of cognitive control | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 19 | issue = 8| pages = 1302–1315 | doi = 10.1162/jocn.2007.19.8.1302 | pmid = 17651004 | s2cid = 19772984 }}

Other learning frameworks

Numerous frameworks are available that describe development and help to organize observations of learning behavior. Intelligence theories date back to the 19th century and the early 20th century, such as Charles Spearman's concept of general intelligence factor, or g. Though there were exceptions (e.g., Thorndike), most theories of intelligence included g, a general index of cognitive ability.Bolles, R.C. (1993). The Story of Psychology: A Thematic History. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.Fancher, R.E. (1990). Pioneers of Psychology, Second Edition. New York: Norton & Company.

An intelligence theory that has drawn considerable attention is Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC), which is grounded in extensive factor analytic research from cognitive ability test databases, as well as studies of development and heritability. CHC is actually an amalgam of Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc theory and Carroll's three-tier model.Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor Analytic Studies. New York: Cambridge University. proposed a framework with the broadest level a general intelligence factor conceptually similar to Spearman's g. This general factor was divided into eight narrower abilities, each consisting of narrow factors. Cattell-Horn's model was similar on several fronts, including its hierarchical structure. In the 1990s, Carroll's model was combined with Cattell-Horn's work by Flanagan, McGrew, and Ortiz (2000).Flanagan, D.P., McGrew, K.S., & Ortiz, S. (2000). The Wechsler Intelligence Scales and Gf- Gc Theory: A contemporary approach to interpretation. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. CHC contains three strata: stratum III is g, stratum II consists of broad cognitive abilities, and stratum I consists of narrow cognitive abilities. The broad cognitive abilities (stratum II) include fluid reasoning (or Gf, forming and recognizing logical relationships among patterns, inferencing, and transforming novel stimuli) and comprehension-knowledge (or Gc, using language and acquired knowledge). There is on-going discussion by proponents of CHC about g's importance in the framework.

The Structure of Intellect (SOI) model includes three axes (with 5-6 components per axis) that form a 3-dimensional cube; because each dimension is independent, there are 150 different potential aspects of intelligence.{{cite journal | last1 = Guilford | first1 = J.P. | year = 1982 | title = Cognitive psychology's ambiguities: Some suggested remedies | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 89 | pages = 48–59 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.89.1.48 }} Howard Gardner has written about several categories of intelligence, as opposed to a hierarchical model.Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed. Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, New York: Basic Books.

Neuropsychologists have sought to map various mental abilities onto brain structures. In so doing they have created frameworks that include factors and sub-components. LuriaLuria, A.R. (1973). The Working Brain: An Introduction to Neuropsychology (B. Haigh, Trans.). New York: Basic Books. organized brain functions into now-familiar categories, such as speech and memory. Luria's conception of attention included three units: Unit 1 (brainstem and related areas) regulates cortical activity and levels of alertness, Unit 2 (lateral and posterior regions of neocortex) analyzes and stores newly received information, and Unit 3 (frontal lobes) programs and regulates activity. More recently, the PASS (Planning, Attention, Successive, and Simultaneous) modelDas, J.P., Naglieri, J.A., & Kirby, J.R. (1994). Assessment of Cognitive Processes: The PASS Theory of Intelligence. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. yields both a global index of ability while emphasizing specific cognitive processes. For example, "successive" refers to information that is perceived, interpreted, and/or remembered in a serial order (e.g., language), whereas "simultaneous" refers to material that is perceived, interpreted, and/or remembered as a whole (e.g. visual-spatial).

Footnotes

{{Reflist|2}}

References

{{refbegin}}

  • {{cite journal | last1 = Altemeier | first1 = L. | last2 = Jones | first2 = J. | last3 = Abbott | first3 = R. | last4 = Berninger | first4 = V. | year = 2006 | title = Executive functions in becoming writing readers and reading writers: Note taking and report writing in third and fifth graders | journal = Developmental Neuropsychology | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 161–173 | doi = 10.1207/s15326942dn2901_8 | pmid = 16390292 | s2cid = 2317324 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Amsterlaw | first1 = J. | year = 2006 | title = Children's beliefs about everyday reasoning | journal = Child Development | volume = 77 | issue = 2| pages = 443–464 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00881.x | pmid = 16611183 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Bar-Haim | first1 = Y. | last2 = Bart | first2 = O. | year = 2006 | title = Motor function and social participation in kindergarten children | journal = Social Development | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 296–310 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9507.2006.00342.x| doi-broken-date = 22 May 2025 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Benjamin | first1 = A. S. | last2 = Bird | first2 = R. D. | year = 2006 | title = Metacognitive control of the spacing of study repetitions | journal = Journal of Memory and Language | volume = 55 | pages = 126–137 | doi = 10.1016/j.jml.2006.02.003 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Bishoff-Grethe | first1 = A. | last2 = Goedert | first2 = K.M. | last3 = Willingham | first3 = D.T. | last4 = Grafton | first4 = S.T. | year = 2004 | title = Neural substrates of response-based sequence learning using fMRI | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 16 | issue = 1| pages = 127–138 | doi = 10.1162/089892904322755610 | pmid = 15006042 | s2cid = 832676 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Blake | first1 = R. | last2 = Shiffrar | first2 = M. | year = 2007 | title = Perception of Human Motion | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 58 | issue = 47| pages = 47–73 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190152 | pmid = 16903802 | s2cid = 5867069 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Blakemore | first1 = S.J. | year = 2007 | title = Brain development during adolescence | journal = Education Review | volume = 20 | issue = 1| pages = 82–90 }}
  • Brewer, M.B. & Hewstone, M. (2004). Social Cognition, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Broekkamp | first1 = H. | last2 = Van Hout-Wolter | first2 = B.H.A.M. | year = 2007 | title = Students' adaptation of study strategies when preparing for classroom tests | journal = Educational Psychology | volume = 19 | issue = 4| pages = 401–428 | doi = 10.1007/s10648-006-9025-0 | s2cid = 145415194 }}
  • Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor Analytic Studies. New York: Cambridge University.
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Contreras-Vidal | first1 = J | year = 2006 | title = Development of forward models for hand localization and movement control in 6 to 10-year-old children | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 25 | issue = 4–5| pages = 634–645 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2006.07.006 | pmid = 17011659 }}
  • Das, J.P., Naglieri, J.A., & Kirby, J.R. (1994). Assessment of Cognitive Processes: The PASS Theory of Intelligence. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
  • Fancher, R.E. (1990). Pioneers of Psychology, Second Edition. New York: Norton & Company.
  • Flanagan, D.P., McGrew, K.S., & Ortiz, S. (2000). The Wechsler Intelligence Scales and Gf- Gc Theory: A contemporary approach to interpretation. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Flavell | first1 = J. | year = 1979 | title = Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new era of cognitive-developmental inquiry | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 34 | issue = 1| pages = 906–911 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906 | s2cid = 8841485 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Garderen | first1 = D. | year = 2006 | title = Spatial visualization, visual imagery, and mathematical problem solving of students with varying abilities | journal = Journal of Learning Disabilities | volume = 39 | issue = 6| pages = 496–506 | doi = 10.1177/00222194060390060201 | pmid = 17165617 }}
  • Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed. Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, New York: Basic Books.
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Guilford | first1 = J.P. | year = 1982 | title = Cognitive psychology's ambiguities: Some suggested remedies | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 89 | pages = 48–59 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.89.1.48 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Halford | first1 = G.S. | last2 = Wilson | first2 = W.H. | last3 = Phillips | first3 = S. | year = 1998 | title = Processing capacity defined by relational complexity: Implications for comparative, developmental, and cognitive psychology | journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 21 | issue = 6| pages = 803–31 | doi = 10.1017/S0140525X98001769 | pmid = 10191879 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Hertzog | first1 = N. | year = 2007 | title = Transporting Pedagogy: Implementing the project approach in two first grade classrooms | journal = Journal of Advanced Academics | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 530–564 |doi=10.4219/jaa-2007-559 | s2cid = 145808825 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Hofer | first1 = B.K. | year = 2004 | title = Epistemological understanding as a metacognitive process: Thinking aloud during online searching | journal = Educational Psychologist | volume = 39 | issue = 1| pages = 43–55 | doi = 10.1207/s15326985ep3901_5 | s2cid = 9660431 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Holtgraves | first1 = T.M. | last2 = Kashima | first2 = Y. | year = 2008 | title = Language, meaning, and social cognition | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 12 | issue = 1| pages = 73–94 | doi = 10.1177/1088868307309605 | pmid = 18453473 | s2cid = 33579992 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Imbo | first1 = I. | last2 = Vandierendonck | first2 = A. | year = 2007 | title = The development of strategy use in elementary school children: Working memory and individual differences | url = https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/373960| journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 96 | issue = 4| pages = 284–309 | doi = 10.1016/j.jecp.2006.09.001 | pmid = 17046017 | hdl = 1854/LU-373960 | hdl-access = free }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | last2 = Hall | first2 = L. K. | year = 2001 | title = Distinguishing short-term memory from working memory | journal = Memory and Cognition | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 1–9 | doi = 10.3758/BF03195735 | pmid = 11277452 | doi-access = free }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Katzir | first1 = T. | last2 = Youngsuk | first2 = K. | last3 = Wolf | first3 = M. | last4 = O'Brien | first4 = B. | last5 = Kennedy | first5 = B. | last6 = Lovett | first6 = M. | last7 = Morris | first7 = R. | year = 2006 | title = Reading fluency: The whole is more than the parts | journal = Annals of Dyslexia | volume = 56 | issue = 1| pages = 51–82 | doi = 10.1007/s11881-006-0003-5 | pmid = 17849208 | s2cid = 25800842 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Kozhevnikov | first1 = M. | last2 = Motes | first2 = M. | last3 = Hegarty | first3 = M. | year = 2007 | title = Spatial Visualization in Physics Problem Solving | journal = Cognitive Science | volume = 31 | issue = 4| pages = 549–579 | doi = 10.1080/15326900701399897 | pmid = 21635308 | doi-access = free }}
  • Levine, M.D. (1998). Developmental Variation and Learning Disorders, Second Edition. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Lungu | first1 = O. V. | last2 = Liu | first2 = T. | last3 = Waechter | first3 = T. | last4 = Willingham | first4 = D. T. | last5 = Ashe | first5 = J. | year = 2007 | title = Strategic modulation of cognitive control | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 19 | issue = 8| pages = 1302–1315 | doi = 10.1162/jocn.2007.19.8.1302 | pmid = 17651004 | s2cid = 19772984 }}
  • Luria, A.R. (1973). The Working Brain: An Introduction to Neuropsychology (B. Haigh, Trans.). New York: Basic Books.
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Mammarella | first1 = I. | last2 = Cornoldi | first2 = C. | last3 = Pazzaglia | first3 = F. | last4 = Toso | first4 = C. | last5 = Grimoldi | first5 = M. | last6 = Vio | first6 = C. | year = 2006 | title = Evidence for a double dissociation between spatial-simultaneous and spatial- sequential working memory in visuospatial (nonverbal) learning disabled children | journal = Brain and Cognition | volume = 62 | issue = 1| pages = 58–67 | doi = 10.1016/j.bandc.2006.03.007 | pmid = 16750287 | s2cid = 19946786 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Nagy | first1 = W. | last2 = Berninger | first2 = V. | last3 = Abbott | first3 = R. | year = 2006 | title = Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students | journal = Journal of Educational Psychology | volume = 98 | issue = 1| pages = 134–147 | doi = 10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.134 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Parmentier | first1 = F.B.R. | last2 = Andres | first2 = P. | last3 = Elford | first3 = G. | last4 = Jones | first4 = D.M. | year = 2006 | title = Organization of visuo-spatial serial memory: interaction of temporal order with spatial and temporal grouping | journal = Psychological Research | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 200–217 | doi = 10.1007/s00426-004-0212-7 | pmid = 15844005 | s2cid = 468986 }}
  • Posner, M.I., & Rothbart, M.K. (2007). Educating the Human Brain. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Russ | first1 = R. | last2 = Scherr | first2 = R. | last3 = Hammer | first3 = D. | last4 = Mineska | first4 = J. | year = 2008 | title = Recognizing mechanistic reasoning in student scientific inquiry: A framework for discourse analysis developed from philosophy of science | journal = Science Studies and Science Education | volume = 92| issue = 3| pages = 499–525| doi = 10.1002/sce.20264 | bibcode = 2008SciEd..92..499R | doi-access = free }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Swanson | first1 = H. | last2 = Jerman | first2 = O. | year = 2007 | title = The influence of working memory on reading growth in subgroups of children with reading disabilities | journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 96 | issue = 4| pages = 249–283 | doi = 10.1016/j.jecp.2006.12.004 | pmid = 17437762 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = J. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = P. | last3 = Maruff | first3 = P. | last4 = Wilson | first4 = P. | year = 2008 | title = The link between motor impairment level and motor imagery ability in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 27 | issue = 2| pages = 270–285 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2008.02.008 | pmid = 18384899 }}
  • {{cite journal | last1 = Zorzi | first1 = M. | last2 = Priftis | first2 = K. | last3 = Meneghello | first3 = F. | last4 = Marenzi | first4 = R. | last5 = Umilt | first5 = C. | year = 2006 | title = The spatial representation of numerical and non-numerical sequences: Evidence from neglect | journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 44 | issue = 7| pages = 1061–1067 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.025 | pmid = 16356515 | s2cid = 34616356 }}

{{refend}}

Category:Cognitive neuroscience

Category:Neuropsychology

Category:Learning theory (education)

Category:Teacher training

Category:Special education