Nipple-sparing mastectomy

The concept and technique of NSM were first described by Freeman in 1962. The procedure was fraught with complications, unsatisfying cosmetic outcomes, and concerns about its oncologic safety. It was thus not widely accepted by surgeons. After the identification of the BRCA gene in the 1990s,{{Cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Jeff M. |last2=Lee |first2=Ming K. |last3=Newman |first3=Beth |last4=Morrow |first4=Jan E. |last5=Anderson |first5=Lee A. |last6=Huey |first6=Bing |last7=King |first7=Mary-Claire |date=1990 |title=Linkage of Early-Onset Familial Breast Cancer to Chromosome 17q21 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.2270482 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=250 |issue=4988 |pages=1684–1689 |doi=10.1126/science.2270482 |pmid=2270482 |bibcode=1990Sci...250.1684H |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }} together with the reintroduction by Hartmann et al. in their published research,{{Cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=L. C. |last2=Sellers |first2=T. A. |last3=Schaid |first3=D. J. |last4=Frank |first4=T. S. |last5=Soderberg |first5=C. L. |last6=Sitta |first6=D. L. |last7=Frost |first7=M. H. |last8=Grant |first8=C. S. |last9=Donohue |first9=J. H. |last10=Woods |first10=J. E. |last11=McDonnell |first11=S. K. |last12=Vockley |first12=C. W. |last13=Deffenbaugh |first13=A. |last14=Couch |first14=F. J. |last15=Jenkins |first15=R. B. |date=2001 |title=Efficacy of Bilateral Prophylactic Mastectomy in BRCA1 and BRCA2 Gene Mutation Carriers |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/93.21.1633 |journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume=93 |issue=21 |pages=1633–1637 |doi=10.1093/jnci/93.21.1633 |pmid=11698567 |issn=0027-8874}} the procedure regained popularity. The bulk of the study's patients had undergone NSM, and only 1% of them went on to acquire breast cancer subsequently. Whether the nipple was removed or kept, there was no difference in risk reduction.{{Cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=L. C. |last2=Schaid |first2=D. J. |last3=Woods |first3=J. E. |last4=Crotty |first4=T. P. |last5=Myers |first5=J. L. |last6=Arnold |first6=P. G. |last7=Petty |first7=P. M. |last8=Sellers |first8=T. A. |last9=Johnson |first9=J. L. |last10=McDonnell |first10=S. K. |last11=Frost |first11=M. H. |last12=Jenkins |first12=R. B. |date=1999 |title=Efficacy of bilateral prophylactic mastectomy in women with a family history of breast cancer |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9887158/ |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=340 |issue=2 |pages=77–84 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199901143400201 |issn=0028-4793 |pmid=9887158}}

However, the suitability of NSM for individuals with excessively large or ptotic breasts has been a topic of debate. In 2009, Spear et al. conducted an initial study and concluded that NSM should not be offered to such patients.{{Cite journal |last1=Spear |first1=Scott L. |last2=Hannan |first2=Catherine M. |last3=Willey |first3=Shawna C. |last4=Cocilovo |first4=Costanza |date=2009 |title=Nipple-sparing mastectomy |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19483564/ |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery |volume=123 |issue=6 |pages=1665–1673 |doi=10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181a64d94 |issn=1529-4242 |pmid=19483564}} Nevertheless, in the same year, a critique of Spear challenged this conclusion by presenting a case of a patient with macromastia who underwent NSM safely following a pre-mastectomy delay procedure.{{Cite journal |last=Jensen |first=J. Arthur |date=2009 |title=Nipple-sparing mastectomy: what is the best evidence for safety? |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19952691/ |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery |volume=124 |issue=6 |pages=2195–2197 |doi=10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181bcf654 |issn=1529-4242 |pmid=19952691}}

In 2020, Jay Arthur Jensen presented a new strategy that combines NSM with subtotal mastectomy.{{Cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=Jay Arthur |last2=Giuliano |first2=Armando E. |date=2020-06-23 |title=The Hybrid Delay: A New Approach for Nipple-sparing Mastectomy in Macromastia |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2940 |doi=10.1097/GOX.0000000000002940 |issn=2169-7574 |pmc=7339346 |pmid=32766079}} This approach not only achieves post-mastectomy nipple positioning but also avoids the potential drawbacks associated with a separate reduction mammoplasty followed by NSM or a specialized delay procedure. Importantly, all patients undergo full oncologic mastectomies, ensuring that nipple sparing can be achieved in this high-risk group within two procedures without compromising oncologic safety.

Patients suffering from benign or malignant breast cancer can receive NSM treatment. The goal of NSM is to obtain negative margins and achieve a satisfying cosmetic outcome at the same time. NSM was ideally aimed at small breast cancer where the location of tumour is far away from the Nipple Areolar Complex (NAC), and without clinical lymph node involvement. Selection of NSM candidates is based on preoperative and intraoperative assessment.

Source:

• undergone tumour margin evaluation by using radiological distance (mammogram or MRI)
• a tumour size smaller than 3 cm
• a distance between tumour and NAC farther than 2 cm
• tumour located outside of the areola area
• no nipple retraction
• no blood discharge from the nipple
• no inflammatory signs
• no previous irradiation and no micro calcifications on radiologic assessment
• no or minimal ptosis (grade 0 or 1)
• A or B cup breast size
• a BMI < 30 kg/m²

• bilateral cancer
• benign tumour
• preoperative radio- or chemotherapy

are recommended to receive this surgery.

Nonetheless, patients with contraindications have shown positive results when using some of the more recent approaches to these difficult cases. NSM is now feasible even for patients with different contraindications. Currently, only women with inflammatory signs and nipple involvement are the absolute contraindications for conducting an NSM.{{Cite journal |last1=Brzezinska |first1=Monika |last2=Dixon |first2=J. Michael |date=2018 |title=Inflammatory breast cancer: no longer an absolute contraindication for breast conservation surgery following good response to neoadjuvant therapy |journal=Gland Surgery |language=en |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=52024–52524 |doi=10.21037/gs.2018.08.04 |doi-access=free |issn=2227-8575 |pmc=6323256 |pmid=30687625}}

Patients will undergo a frozen section examination of retroareolar tissue during the operation. The intraoperative frozen section is highly specific and moderately sensitive for identifying positive sub-areolar biopsies in NSM. The examination can act as a guide for intraoperative reconstructive planning.{{Cite journal |last1=Alperovich |first1=Michael |last2=Choi |first2=Mihye |last3=Karp |first3=Nolan S. |last4=Singh |first4=Baljit |last5=Ayo |first5=Diego |last6=Frey |first6=Jordan D. |last7=Roses |first7=Daniel F. |last8=Schnabel |first8=Freya R. |last9=Axelrod |first9=Deborah M. |last10=Shapiro |first10=Richard L. |last11=Guth |first11=Amber A. |date=2016 |title=Nipple-sparing Mastectomy and Sub-areolar Biopsy: To Freeze or not to Freeze? Evaluating the Role of Sub-areolar Intraoperative Frozen Section |journal=The Breast Journal |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=18–23 |doi=10.1111/tbj.12517|pmid=26510917 |doi-access=free }} The importance of conducting sub-areolar biopsies in all nipple-sparing mastectomies can be shown by the existence of positive sub-areolar biopsies in contralateral and high-risk prophylactic mastectomy specimens.

High risk genetic mutations BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers can receive preventative mastectomy as a risk-reduction treatment. The operation can reduce their overall risk of developing future breast cancer by more than 90%.{{Cite journal |last=Thepjatri |first=Nate |date=2007 |title=Surgery of the Breast: Principles and Art, 2nd ed. |journal=Annals of Surgery |language=en-US |volume=245 |issue=4 |pages=661 |doi=10.1097/01.sla.0000259049.76053.05 |issn=0003-4932 |pmc=1877050}}

There are various ways of incision. The selection of incision methods depends on the skin perfusion and cosmetic factors.{{Cite journal |last1=Lotan |first1=Adi Maisel |last2=Tongson |first2=Krystina C. |last3=Police |first3=Alice M. |last4=Dec |first4=Wojciech |date=2020 |title=Mastectomy Incision Design to Optimize Aesthetic Outcomes in Breast Reconstruction |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=e3086 |doi=10.1097/GOX.0000000000003086 |issn=2169-7574 |pmc=7544272 |pmid=33133941}}

File:Incision of breast.jpg

This is the most common incision approach.{{Cite journal |last1=Go |first1=Ju Young |last2=Jeong |first2=Dae Kyun |last3=Han |first3=Daniel Seungyoul |last4=Bae |first4=Seong Hwan |date=2018 |title=Inframammary Flap Excision Method in Breast Augmentation: Improving Symmetry of NAC and IMF |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=e2052 |doi=10.1097/GOX.0000000000002052 |issn=2169-7574 |pmc=6326606 |pmid=30656124}} An approximately 9 cm incision is performed inferiorly to the nipple.{{Cite journal |last1=Kopkash |first1=Katherine |last2=Sisco |first2=Mark |last3=Poli |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Seth |first4=Akhil |last5=Pesce |first5=Catherine |date=2020 |title=The modern approach to the nipple-sparing mastectomy |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jso.25909 |journal=Journal of Surgical Oncology |language=en |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=29–35 |doi=10.1002/jso.25909 |pmid=32219847 |issn=0022-4790|url-access=subscription }} It then extends laterally along the IMF. The incision can be displaced 4 cm medially if the internal mammary arteries are desired as the recipient vessel for autologous reconstruction.

A vertical radial incision extends from the bottom of the areola border to the inframammary fold. This incision is preferable by plastic surgeons as it allows upward positioning of the nipple for ptosis correction.{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Colin P. |last2=Peterson |first2=Brian D. |date=2021 |title=Augmentation Mastopexy with Surgical Excision of the Lower Pole to Avoid Waterfall Deformity: A Surgical Technique and Nipple Areolar Complex Case Series |journal=Plastic Surgery |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=103–109 |doi=10.1177/2292550320933662 |issn=2292-5503 |pmc=8120554 |pmid=34026673}}

The incision is performed around the button half portion of the areolar border to the inframammary fold laterally. This approach is preferred by surgeons who routinely perform skin-sparing mastectomies via circumareolar incision.

NSM can be performed through preexisting incision for prevention of additional scarring.

After incision, mastectomy flap dissection is performed. Exposure is created by retraction of the skin flap with counter-tension by countertraction of the breast gland. This technique allows better visualization and access to the underlying breast tissue.{{Cite journal |last1=Bille |first1=Camilla |last2=Dalaei |first2=Farima |last3=Thomsen |first3=Jørn Bo |date=2019 |title=Identifying the dissection plane for mastectomy—description and visualization of our technique |journal=Gland Surgery |volume=8 |issue=Suppl 4 |pages=S276–S280 |doi=10.21037/gs.2019.05.04 |doi-access=free |issn=2227-684X |pmc=6819889 |pmid=31709167}} Breast and ductal tissues are removed from the chest wall and the pectoralis muscle, including the pectoralis fascia. Through the whole procedure, the NAC is preserved by dissecting the tissues away from the underlying structures to maintain the blood supply and nerve connections to the nipple.

Any breast reconstruction approaches, including implant-based reconstruction and flap-based reconstruction, may be done after the surgery. Implant-based reconstructions are most commonly selected as they allow the rebuilding of a moderate size of breast.{{Cite journal |last1=Malekpour |first1=Mahdi |last2=Malekpour |first2=Fatemeh |last3=Wang |first3=Howard Tz-Ho |date=2023 |title=Breast reconstruction: Review of current autologous and implant-based techniques and long-term oncologic outcome |journal=World Journal of Clinical Cases |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=2201–2212 |doi=10.12998/wjcc.v11.i10.2201 |doi-access=free |issn=2307-8960 |pmid=37122510|pmc=10131028 }} Flap-based reconstruction utilizes autologous tissue, such as muscle or subcutaneous from alternative body regions for reconstructing the breast mound.{{Cite journal |last1=Somogyi |first1=Ron B. |last2=Ziolkowski |first2=Natalia |last3=Osman |first3=Fahima |last4=Ginty |first4=Alexandra |last5=Brown |first5=Mitchell |date=2018 |title=Breast reconstruction |journal=Canadian Family Physician |volume=64 |issue=6 |pages=424–432 |issn=0008-350X |pmc=5999246 |pmid=29898931}}

Monitoring of blood pressure is vital after the surgery. If any hypotensive situation occurs in patients, intravascular fluid injection is required for replenishment of blood pressure. Drugs containing epinephrine should be avoided to prevent vasoconstriction and reduced blood flow through the anastomosis.{{Cite journal |last1=Nahabedian |first1=Maurice Y. |last2=Nahabedian |first2=Anissa G. |date=2016 |title=Autologous microvascular breast reconstruction: Postoperative strategies to improve outcomes |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27824738/ |journal=Nursing |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.1097/01.NURSE.0000504672.73356.8e |issn=1538-8689 |pmid=27824738}} Physical assessment, such as skin colour, capillary refill time, skin turgor, skin temperature, and sensation of the breast, are used for blood pressure examination at NAC.

Patients often suffer from depression and anxiety due to the stress of surgery and loss of breast tissue. Mental health education and self-compassion are important as a protective mechanism for body image disturbance and psychological distress.{{Cite journal |last1=Sherman |first1=K. A. |last2=Woon |first2=S. |last3=French |first3=J. |last4=Elder |first4=E. |date=2017 |title=Body image and psychological distress in nipple-sparing mastectomy: the roles of self-compassion and appearance investment |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27167009/ |journal=Psycho-Oncology |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=337–345 |doi=10.1002/pon.4138 |issn=1099-1611 |pmid=27167009}} However, this surgical approach provides greater psychological benefits than other mastectomy due to the preservation of the NAC and women’s body image.

NSM has the same perioperative complications as skin-sparing mastectomy and breast reconstruction.{{Cite journal |last1=Piper |first1=Merisa |last2=Peled |first2=Anne Warren |last3=Foster |first3=Robert D. |last4=Moore |first4=Dan H. |last5=Esserman |first5=Laura J. |date=2013 |title=Total Skin-Sparing Mastectomy: A Systematic Review of Oncologic Outcomes and Postoperative Complications |url=https://journals.lww.com/annalsplasticsurgery/abstract/2013/04000/total_skin_sparing_mastectomy__a_systematic_review.14.aspx |journal=Annals of Plastic Surgery |language=en-US |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=435–437 |doi=10.1097/SAP.0b013e31827e5333 |pmid=23486127 |issn=0148-7043|url-access=subscription }} One of the most common risks would be necrosis of the NAC and the surrounding skin tissues.{{Cite journal |last1=Chirappapha |first1=Prakasit |last2=Petit |first2=Jean-Yves |last3=Rietjens |first3=Mario |last4=De Lorenzi |first4=Francesca |last5=Garusi |first5=Cristina |last6=Martella |first6=Stefano |last7=Barbieri |first7=Benedetta |last8=Gottardi |first8=Alessandra |last9=Andrea |first9=Manconi |last10=Giuseppe |first10=Lomeo |last11=Hamza |first11=Alaa |last12=Lohsiriwat |first12=Visnu |date=2014 |title=Nipple Sparing Mastectomy: Does Breast Morphological Factor Related to Necrotic Complications? |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Global Open |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=e99 |doi=10.1097/GOX.0000000000000038 |issn=2169-7574 |pmc=4174220 |pmid=25289296}} This is affected by the oxygenating ability of the breast skin, which relates to the blood supply.{{Cite journal |last=Zenn |first=Michael R. |date=2018 |title=Evaluation of skin viability in nipple sparing mastectomy (NSM) |journal=Gland Surgery |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=301–307 |doi=10.21037/gs.2018.04.04 |doi-access=free |pmid=29998079|pmc=6006020 }} The blood supply to the NAC particularly may be interfered with by the NSM. The average rate of partial or full skin flap necrosis is 9.5%. This is likely due to the surgical techniques and patient selection. BMI, breast mass, and sternal notch to nipple length are more adversely affecting the risk of necrosis.

Although breast reconstruction is known to be safe, there might still be some complications, including infection, seroma, hematoma, and capsule contracture.{{Cite journal |last1=Toh |first1=Uhi |last2=Takenaka |first2=Miki |last3=Iwakuma |first3=Nobutaka |last4=Akagi |first4=Yoshito |date=2021 |title=Clinical outcomes of patients after nipple-sparing mastectomy and reconstruction based on the expander/implant technique |journal=Surgery Today |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=862–871 |doi=10.1007/s00595-020-02175-4 |issn=0941-1291 |pmc=8141482 |pmid=33185799}}

The risk of NAC necrosis can be reduced by the ‘delayed’ procedure. It consists of the creation of new circulatory connections from the breast skin to the NAC. In this way, the NAC may no longer be completely dependent on the breast tissue underneath for its blood supply.{{Cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=Kerry |last2=Allan |first2=Lyra |last3=Roblin |first3=Paul |last4=Ross |first4=David |last5=Farhadi |first5=Jian |date=2011 |title=Factors affecting post-operative complications following skin sparing mastectomy with immediate breast reconstruction |journal=The Breast |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=21–25 |doi=10.1016/j.breast.2010.06.006 |pmid=20619645 |issn=0960-9776|doi-access=free }}

As the NAC is preserved, patients may encounter a higher risk of occult NAC tumour.{{Cite journal |last=Edge |first=Stephen B. |date=2009 |title=Nipple-sparing mastectomy: how often is the nipple involved? |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19720888/ |journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|volume=27 |issue=30 |pages=4930–4932 |doi=10.1200/JCO.2009.23.9996 |issn=1527-7755 |pmid=19720888}} The retroareolar tissue is not removed completely and thus more terminal duct lobular units are left in patient’ s body, which induces higher oncological risk.

The difference between NSM and skin-sparing mastectomy (SSM) is that NSM allows preservation of the NAC but SSM does not.{{Cite journal |last1=Galimberti |first1=Viviana |last2=Vicini |first2=Elisa |last3=Corso |first3=Giovanni |last4=Morigi |first4=Consuelo |last5=Fontana |first5=Sabrina |last6=Sacchini |first6=V. |last7=Veronesi |first7=Paolo |date=2017 |title=Nipple-sparing and skin-sparing mastectomy: review of aims, oncological safety and contraindications |journal=Breast (Edinburgh, Scotland) |volume=34 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S82–S84 |doi=10.1016/j.breast.2017.06.034 |issn=0960-9776 |pmc=5837802 |pmid=28673535}} One of the main reasons to preserve the NAC is for patients’ satisfaction and psychological benefits.{{Cite journal |last1=Agha |first1=R. A. |last2=Al Omran |first2=Y. |last3=Wellstead |first3=G. |last4=Sagoo |first4=H. |last5=Barai |first5=I. |last6=Rajmohan |first6=S. |last7=Borrelli |first7=M. R. |last8=Vella-Baldacchino |first8=M. |last9=Orgill |first9=D. P. |last10=Rusby |first10=J. E. |date=2019 |title=Systematic review of therapeutic nipple-sparing versus skin-sparing mastectomy |journal=BJS Open |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=135–145 |doi=10.1002/bjs5.50119 |issn=2474-9842 |pmc=6433323 |pmid=30957059}} It is a crucial component of the breast, given its aesthetics and contribution to sexual pleasure.{{Cite journal |last1=Clarijs |first1=Marloes E. |last2=Peeters |first2=Noelle J. M. C. Vrancken |last3=van Dongen |first3=Sophie A. F. |last4=Koppert |first4=Linetta B. |last5=Pusic |first5=Andrea L. |last6=Mureau |first6=Marc A. M. |last7=Rijken |first7=Bianca F. M. |date=2023 |title=Quality of Life and Complications after Nipple- versus Skin-Sparing Mastectomy followed by Immediate Breast Reconstruction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=12–24 |doi=10.1097/PRS.0000000000010155 |issn=0032-1052 |pmid=36728484|pmc=10298179 }} Even though the NAC can be reconstructed after performing SSM, the reconstruction is difficult due to the unique appearance of every NAC. Overall, NSM can result in higher sexual and psychosocial well-being.{{Cite journal |last1=Goh |first1=S. C. J. |last2=Martin |first2=N. A. |last3=Pandya |first3=A. N. |last4=Cutress |first4=R. I. |date=2011 |title=Patient satisfaction following nipple-areolar complex reconstruction and tattooing |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20570584/ |journal=Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=360–363 |doi=10.1016/j.bjps.2010.05.010 |issn=1878-0539 |pmid=20570584}}

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Category:Breast surgery