Nuclear energy policy

File:Nuclear power plant construction.jpg.]]

{{See also|Nuclear power by country}}

After 1986's Chernobyl disaster, public fear of nuclear power led to a virtual halt in reactor construction, and several countries decided to phase out nuclear power altogether.[https://archive.today/20130201052835/http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS101123+06-May-2009+BW20090506 Research and Markets: International Perspectives on Energy Policy and the Role of Nuclear Power] Reuters, May 6, 2009. However, increasing energy demand was believed to require new sources of electric power, and rising fossil fuel prices coupled with concerns about greenhouse gas emissions (see Climate change mitigation) have sparked heightened interest in nuclear power and predictions of a nuclear renaissance.

In 2004, the largest producer of nuclear energy was the United States with 28% of worldwide capacity, followed by France (18%) and Japan (12%).{{cite journal | title = Survey of energy resources | publisher = World Energy Council | year = 2004 | url = http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser2004.pdf | access-date = 2007-07-13 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070925194158/http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser2004.pdf | archive-date = 2007-09-25 }} In 2007, 31 countries operated nuclear power plants.Mycle Schneider, Steve Thomas, Antony Froggatt, Doug Koplow (August 2009). [http://www.greens-efa.org/cms/topics/dokbin/206/206749.pdf The World Nuclear Industry Status Report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625044818/http://www.greens-efa.org/cms/topics/dokbin/206/206749.pdf |date=2008-06-25 }}, German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Reactor Safety, p. 6. In September 2008 the IAEA projected nuclear power to remain at a 12.4% to 14.4% share of the world's electricity production through 2030.{{cite journal | title = Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2030 | publisher = International Atomic Energy Agency | url = http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/RDS1-28_web.pdf|date=September 2008 | access-date = 2008-09-08}}

In 2013, almost two years after Fukushima, according to the IAEA there are 390 operating nuclear generating units throughout the world, more than 10% less than before Fukushima, and exactly the same as in Chernobyl-year 1986.[http://www.worldnuclearreport.org/spip.php?article132 Historic Move: IAEA Shifts 47 Japanese Reactors Into “Long-Term Shutdown” Category], World Nuclear Industry Status Report, 16-1-2013 Asia is expected to be the primary growth market for nuclear energy in the foreseeable future, despite continued uncertainty in the energy outlooks for Japan, South Korea, and others in the region. As of 2014, 63% of all reactors under construction globally are in Asia.[http://nbr.org/research/activity.aspx?id=474 Multilateral Cooperation in Asia's Nuclear Sector], 2014 Pacific Energy Summit Working Paper, 8-6-14

{{See also|Energy policy}}

{{Main|Nuclear power debate}}

Nuclear accidents and radioactive waste disposal are major concerns. Other concerns include nuclear proliferation, the high cost of nuclear power plants, and nuclear terrorism.Brian Martin. [http://www.bmartin.cc/pubs/07sa.html Opposing nuclear power: past and present], Social Alternatives, Vol. 26, No. 2, Second Quarter 2007, pp. 43-47.

For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the words of the French, "We have no coal, we have no oil, we have no gas, we have no choice." Japan—similarly lacking in indigenous natural resources for power supply—relied on nuclear power for 1/3 of its energy mix prior to the Fukushima nuclear disaster; since March 2011, Japan has sought to offset the loss of nuclear power with increased reliance on imported liquefied natural gas, which has led to the country's first trade deficits in decades.http://www.nbr.org/research/activity.aspx?id=352 How Can Japan Compete in a Changing Global Market?, Clara Gillispie, The National Bureau of Asian Research, July 201 Therefore, the discussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with a discussion of energy security and the use of energy mix, including renewable energy development.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

Nuclear power has been relatively unaffected by embargoes, and uranium is mined in "reliable" countries, including Australia and Canada.{{cite news | publisher= Platts |url= http://www.platts.com/Nuclear/Resources/News%20Features/nukeinsight/ | title = Nuclear renaissance faces realities | access-date=2007-07-13 |url-access= subscription }}{{cite journal |publisher=Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Departement of Electrical Engineering of the Faculty of Engineering |author1=L. Meeus |author2=K. Purchala |author3=R. Belmans |url=http://www.esat.kuleuven.be/electa/publications/fulltexts/pub_1225.pdf |title=Is it reliable to depend on import? |access-date=2007-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520205240/http://www.esat.kuleuven.be/electa/publications/fulltexts/pub_1225.pdf |archive-date=2011-05-20 |url-status=dead }}

Many commentators have criticized Germany's Energiewende policy to shut down its world-class nuclear fleet after the Fukushima disaster and rely instead on renewable energy sources, which in the interim has made them heavily dependent on Russian gas.{{cite news | publisher= Globe and Mail |url= https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-angela-merkels-nuclear-folly-fuelled-putins-ambitions-in-ukraine/ |title= Angela Merkel's nuclear folly fuelled Putin's ambitions in Ukraine |year= 2022}} Responding to Russia's attempt to exploit this dependency by shutting off natural gas supplies, Germany is ramping up coal production,{{cite news | publisher = Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/germanys-uniper-bring-coal-fired-power-plant-heyden-4-back-onto-electricity-2022-08-22/ | title=Germany's Uniper to restart coal-fired power plant as Gazprom halts supply to Europe |year=2022}} while maintaining two nuclear plants in reserve.{{cite news | publisher = CNBC |url = https://www.cnbc.com/2022/09/06/germany-to-keep-two-nuclear-plants-available-as-a-backup-burn-coal-.html | title = Germany to keep two nuclear plants available as a backup and burn coal as it faces an energy crisis brought on by war and climate change |year=2022}}

File:OL3.jpg under construction in 2009. It is the first EPR design, but problems with workmanship and supervision have created costly delays which led to an inquiry by the Finnish nuclear regulator STUK.

{{cite news

| title = Olkiluoto pipe welding 'deficient', says regulator

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| access-date =8 June 2010}}

In December 2012, Areva estimated that the full cost of building the reactor will be about €8.5 billion, or almost three times the original delivery price of €3 billion.{{cite news

| title = Finnish parliament agrees plans for two reactors

| work = Reuters

| last = Kinnunen | first = Terhi

| date = 2010-07-01

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{{cite news

| title = Olkiluoto 3 delayed beyond 2014

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| access-date = 24 July 2012}}

{{cite news

| title = Finland's Olkiluoto 3 nuclear plant delayed again

| publisher = BBC

| date = 16 July 2012

| url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18862422

| access-date = 10 August 2012}}

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Proponents have long made hopeful projections of the expected growth of nuclear power, but major accidents, and a well funded anti-nuclear lobby have kept costs high and growth much lower. In 1973 and 1974, the International Atomic Energy Agency predicted a worldwide installed nuclear capacity of 3,600 to 5,000 gigawatts by 2000. The IAEA's 1980 projection was for 740 to 1,075 gigawatts of installed capacity by the year 2000. Even after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, the Nuclear Energy Agency forecasted an installed nuclear capacity of 497 to 646 gigawatts for the year 2000. The actual capacity in 2000 was 356 gigawatts. Moreover, construction costs have often been much higher, and times much longer than projected, failing to meet optimistic projections of “unlimited cheap, clean, and safe electricity.”{{cite journal |url=http://bos.sagepub.com/content/68/5/8.abstract?etoc |title=2011-2012 world nuclear industry status report |author=Mycle Schneider and Antony Froggatt |date=September–October 2012 |volume=68 |number=5 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |pages=8–22 |doi=10.1177/0096340212459126 |bibcode=2012BuAtS..68e...8S |s2cid=145136334 }}

Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear power industry revival, driven by rising fossil fuel prices and new concerns about meeting greenhouse gas emission limits. However, nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999, and new reactors under construction in Finland and France, which were meant to lead a nuclear renaissance, have been delayed and are running over-budget.James Kanter. [http://greeninc.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/05/29/is-the-nuclear-renaissance-fizzling/ Is the Nuclear Renaissance Fizzling?] Green, 29 May 2009.James Kanter. [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/29/business/energy-environment/29nuke.html?ref=global-home In Finland, Nuclear Renaissance Runs Into Trouble] New York Times, May 28, 2009.Rob Broomby. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8138869.stm Nuclear dawn delayed in Finland] BBC News, 8 July 2009. China has 32 new reactors under construction,{{Cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf63.html|title=Nuclear Power in China}} and there are also a considerable number of new reactors being built in South Korea, India, and Russia. At the same time, at least 100 older and smaller reactors will "most probably be closed over the next 10-15 years". So the expanding nuclear programs in Asia are balanced by retirements of aging plants and nuclear reactor phase-outs.{{cite web |url=http://www.ies.unsw.edu.au/sites/all/files/MD%20BookReview_EnergyPolicy2013.pdf |title=Book review: Contesting the future of nuclear power |author=Mark Diesendorf |year=2013 |work=Energy Policy |author-link=Mark Diesendorf }}

In March 2011 the nuclear emergencies at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and shutdowns at other nuclear facilities raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance.[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-13/nuclear-renaissance-threatened-as-japan-fights-meltdown-at-quake-hit-plant.html Nuclear Renaissance Threatened as Japan’s Reactor Struggles] Bloomberg, published March 2011, accessed 2011-03-14[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-quake-nuclear-analysis-idUSTRE72C41W20110314 Analysis: Nuclear renaissance could fizzle after Japan quake] Reuters, published 2011-03-14, accessed 2011-03-14[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nuclear-usa-idUSTRE72C2UW20110313 Japan nuclear woes cast shadow over U.S. energy policy] Reuters, published 2011-03-13, accessed 2011-03-14[http://www.marketwatch.com/story/nuclear-winter-2011-03-14 Nuclear winter? Quake casts new shadow on reactors] MarketWatch, published 2011-03-14, accessed 2011-03-14 Platts has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world".{{cite web |url=http://www.platts.com/RSSFeedDetailedNews/RSSFeed/ElectricPower/6925550 |title=NEWS ANALYSIS: Japan crisis puts global nuclear expansion in doubt |date=21 March 2011 |publisher=Platts }} China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NP-Italy_announces_nuclear_moratorium-2403117.html|title=Italy announces nuclear moratorium|date=24 March 2011|access-date=23 May 2011|publisher=World Nuclear News}} and the Philippines have reviewed their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. Countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035.{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18621367?story_id=18621367 |title=Gauging the pressure |date=28 April 2011 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=3 May 2011}}

Following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, Germany permanently shut down eight of its reactors and pledged to close the rest by 2022.{{cite web |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-germany-nuclear-idUKTRE74Q2P120110530 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126065401/http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-germany-nuclear-idUKTRE74Q2P120110530 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 26, 2016 |title=German government wants nuclear exit by 2022 at latest |author=Annika Breidthardt |date=May 30, 2011 |work=Reuters }} In 2011 Siemens exited the nuclear power sector following the changes to German energy policy, and supported the German government's planned energy transition to renewable energy technologies.{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14963575 | work=BBC News | title=Siemens to quit nuclear industry | date=September 18, 2011}} The Italians voted overwhelmingly to keep their country non-nuclear.{{cite web | url= http://referendum.interno.it/referendum/refe110612/RFT0003.htm | title= Italy Nuclear Referendum Results | date= June 13, 2011 | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120325171121/http://referendum.interno.it/referendum/refe110612/RFT0003.htm | archive-date= March 25, 2012 }} Switzerland and Spain have banned the construction of new reactors.{{cite web |url= http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/11/27/post-fukushima-nuclear-power-changes-latitudes.html |title= Nuclear Power Goes Rogue |author= Henry Sokolski |date= November 28, 2011 |work= Newsweek |author-link= Henry Sokolski |access-date= November 29, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121218012428/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/11/27/post-fukushima-nuclear-power-changes-latitudes.html |archive-date= December 18, 2012 |url-status= dead }} Japan's prime minister called for a dramatic reduction in Japan's reliance on nuclear power.{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-10-28/nuclear-promotion-dropped-in-japan-energy-policy-after-fukushima.html |title=Nuclear Promotion Dropped in Japan Energy Policy After Fukushima |author1=Tsuyoshi Inajima |author2=Yuji Okada |name-list-style=amp |date=October 28, 2011 |work=Bloomberg }} Taiwan's president did the same. Mexico has sidelined construction of 10 reactors in favor of developing natural-gas-fired plants.{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-11-02/mexico-scraps-plans-to-build-as-many-as-10-nuclear-plants-focus-on-gas.html |title=Mexico Scraps Plans to Build 10 Nuclear Power Plants in Favor of Using Gas |author=Carlos Manuel Rodriguez |date=November 4, 2011 |work=Bloomberg Businessweek }} Belgium decided to phase out its nuclear plants.

China—nuclear power's largest prospective market—suspended approvals of new reactor construction while conducting a lengthy nuclear-safety review.[http://www.channel4.com/news/will-chinas-nuclear-nerves-fuel-a-boom-in-green-energy Will China's nuclear nerves fuel a boom in green energy?] Channel 4, published 2011-03-17, accessed 2011-03-17{{cite web|author=the CNN Wire Staff |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/03/16/china.nuclear/?hpt=T2 |title=China freezes nuclear plant approvals - CNN.com |publisher=Edition.cnn.com |access-date=2011-03-16}} In 2012 a new safety plan for nuclear power was approved by State Council, and full incorporation of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safety standards became explicit. In the 13th Five-Year Plan from 2016, six to eight nuclear reactors were to be approved each year. A draft of the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) released in March 2021 showed government plans to reach 70 GWe gross of nuclear capacity by the end of 2025.{{cite web|author=World Nuclear Association |title=Nuclear Power in China |url =https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/china-nuclear-power.aspx}}

Neighboring India, another potential nuclear boom market, has encountered effective local opposition, growing national wariness about foreign nuclear reactors, and a nuclear liability controversy that threatens to prevent new reactor imports. There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the 2000 MW Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The state government of West Bengal state has also refused permission to a proposed 6000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host six Russian reactors.{{cite web |url=http://www.asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3889&Itemid=614 |title=India's Rising Nuclear Safety Concerns |author=Siddharth Srivastava |date=27 October 2011 |work=Asia Sentinel |access-date=29 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215238/http://www.asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3889&Itemid=614 |archive-date=4 October 2013 |url-status=dead }} In March 2018, the government stated that nuclear capacity would fall well short of its 63 GWe target and that the total nuclear capacity is likely to be about 22.5 GWe by the year 2031.{{cite web|url=http://dae.nic.in/writereaddata/parl/budget2018/lsus4226.pdf | title=Issues Concerning Installation of new NPPs, Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy, Lok Sabha unstarred question no. 4226 to be answered on 21.03.2018}}

Following IPCC announcements climate concerns again started to dominate world opinion. With rising oil and gas prices in 2022, many countries are reconsidering nuclear power.

In October 2021 the Japanese cabinet approved the new Plan for Electricity Generation to 2030 prepared by the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) and an advisory committee, following public consultation. The nuclear target for 2030 of 20-22% is unchanged from that in the 2015 plan, but renewables increase greatly to 36-38%, including geothermal and hydro. Hydrogen and ammonia are included at 1%. The plan would require the restart of another ten reactors. Prime minister Fumio Kishida in July 2022 announced that the country should consider building advanced reactors and extending operating licences beyond 60 years.{{cite web|title=Nuclear Power in Japan| url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx|author= World Nuclear Association}}

In March 2022 Belgium delayed its plans to phase out nuclear energy by a decade. The prime minister said that two reactors (Doel 4 and Tihange 3) would continue operating to 2035 to “strengthen our county’s independence from fossil fuels in a turbulent geopolitical environment.” In June Engie said it was seeking financial aid from the government for the continued operation of the two reactors. {{cite web| title= Nuclear Power in Belgium| url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/belgium.aspx| author=World Nuclear Association}}

Eliminating fossil fuels is essential in solving the climate change crisis. Nuclear power has one of the lowest life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions.{{cite web|title=Integrated life-cycle assessment of electricity sources - Figure 37 |url= https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/LCA_3_FINAL%20March%202022.pdf |publisher=UNECE|page=50|year=2022}}{{cite web|title=IPCC Working Group III – Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex III: Technology - specific cost and performance parameters - Table A.III.2 (Emissions of selected electricity supply technologies (gCO 2eq/kWh))

|url= https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-iii.pdf#page=7

|publisher=IPCC|access-date=14 December 2018|page=1335|year=2014}}

Historically, nuclear power has prevented 64 gigatonnes of {{CO2}}-equivalent greenhouse-gas emissions between 1971 and 2009.{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/es3051197 |pmid=23495839 |title=Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power |year=2013 |last1=Kharecha |first1=Pushker A. |last2=Hansen |first2=James E. |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=47 |issue=9 |pages=4889–95 |bibcode=2013EnST...47.4889K |doi-access=free|hdl=2060/20140017100 |hdl-access=free }}

With a significant amount of renewable energy installed in the 21st century, it has been speculated that tensions between nuclear and renewable national energy development strategies might reduce their effectiveness in terms of climate change mitigation.{{cite journal |journal=Nature Energy |date=5 October 2020 |title=Differences in carbon emissions reduction between countries pursuing renewable electricity versus nuclear power |url=https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-020-00696-3 |first1=Benjamin K. |last1=Sovacool |first2=Patrick |last2=Schmid |first3=Andy |last3=Stirling |first4=Goetz |last4=Walter |first5=Gordon |last5=MacKerron|volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=928–935 |doi=10.1038/s41560-020-00696-3 |bibcode=2020NatEn...5..928S |s2cid=225107514 }}

However, newer studies have refuted this idea. Both nuclear and renewable energy have shown equally effective in the prevention of greenhouse-gas emissions.{{Cite journal |title=Reply to 'Differences in Carbon Emissions Reduction between Countries Pursuing Renewable Electricity Versus Nuclear Power,' by Sovacool Et Al. (2020) |journal=SSRN |last1=Fell |first1=Harrison |last2=Gilbert |first2=Alexander |last3=Jenkins |first3=Jesse |last4=Mildenberger |first4=Matto |date=2021-01-08 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3762762|s2cid=234183759 }}{{Cite journal |title={{CO2}} emissions of nuclear power and renewable energies: a statistical analysis of European and global data |journal=The European Physical Journal Plus |last=Wagner |first=Friedrich |date=2021-05-20 |volume=136 |issue=5 |page=562 |doi=10.1140/epjp/s13360-021-01508-7 |bibcode=2021EPJP..136..562W |doi-access=free}} An effective climate-change mitigation strategy may include both nuclear and renewable energy sources.{{cite web |title=IPCC Fifth Assessment Report - WG3 Summary for Policymakers |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_summary-for-policymakers.pdf |date=2013-03-31 |author=IPCC}} In 2018 the IPCC provided advice to policymakers giving four illustrative model pathways to limit warming to 1.5 degrees. In each of these pathways nuclear energy generation increased between 98% and 501% over 2010 levels by 2050.{{cite web|title= Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5°C Summary for Policymakers |url= https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/spm/ |year=2018}}

In 2021 the European Union Joint Research Centre issued the results of its study on whether nuclear power generation meets the criteria of its Green Taxonomy. The analyses did not reveal any science-based evidence that nuclear energy does more harm to human health or to the environment than other electricity production technologies already included in the EU Green Taxonomy as activities supporting climate change mitigation.{{cite web|title= Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation') |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/business_economy_euro/banking_and_finance/documents/210329-jrc-report-nuclear-energy-assessment_en.pdf |year= 2021}} 50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]. As a result of this assessment, the EU Parliament voted to include nuclear energy in its Green Taxonomy.{{cite news|url= https://www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/eu-parliament-vote-green-gas-nuclear-rules-2022-07-06/| title=EU parliament backs labelling gas and nuclear investments as green |year=2022}}

Moreover, nuclear energy has such a low carbon footprint that it could power carbon dioxide capture and transformation,{{Cite web|last=Kugelmass|first=Bret|author-link=Bret Kugelmass |title=Want to stop climate change? Embrace the nuclear option.|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/01/22/climate-change-solution-nuclear-energy-our-best-hope-column/2821183001/|access-date=2021-01-19|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US}} resulting in a carbon-negative process. Specifically, various organizations are working across the globe to create designs for small modular reactors, a type of nuclear fission reactor that is smaller than conventional reactors. Some of these companies include ARC Nuclear{{Cite web|title=Carbon Free Energy {{!}} ARC Clean Energy|url=https://www.arcenergy.co/|access-date=2021-01-19|website=www.arcenergy.co}} in Canada, CNEA in Denmark, Areva TA in France, Toshiba and JAERI in Japan, OKB Gidropress in Russia, and OPEN100{{Cite web|title=OPEN100 {{!}} Nuclear Energy|url=https://www.open-100.com/|access-date=2021-01-19|website=Open100|language=en}} and X-energy{{Cite web|title=X-energy {{!}} Advanced Nuclear Reactors (SMR) & TRISO Fuel|url=https://x-energy.com/|access-date=2021-01-19|website=X-energy|language=en-US}} in the United States.

{{Main|Nuclear energy policy by country|Nuclear power by country}}

{{See also|List of nuclear reactors}}

{{stack|{{Portal|Energy|Nuclear technology}}}}

{{Reflist|2}}

• Cooke, Stephanie (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc.
• Diesendorf, Mark (2007). Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy, University of New South Wales Press.
• Elliott, David (2007). Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future?, Palgrave.
• Falk, Jim (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press.
• Ferguson, Charles D., [https://books.google.com/books?id=ESVVYtZ98-IC "Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks"], Council on Foreign Relations, 2007
• Lovins, Amory B. (1977). Soft Energy Paths: Towards a Durable Peace, Friends of the Earth International, {{ISBN|0-06-090653-7}}
• Lovins, Amory B. and John H. Price (1975). Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy, Ballinger Publishing Company, 1975, {{ISBN|0-88410-602-0}}
• Lowe, Ian (2007). Reaction Time: Climate Change and the Nuclear Option, Quarterly Essay.
• Pernick, Ron and Clint Wilder (2007). The Clean Tech Revolution: The Next Big Growth and Investment Opportunity, Collins, {{ISBN|978-0-06-089623-2}}
• Schneider, Mycle, Steve Thomas, Antony Froggatt, Doug Koplow (August 2009). The World Nuclear Industry Status Report, German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Reactor Safety.
• Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2011). Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy, World Scientific.
• Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective, University of California Press.

• [http://www.nei.org/publicpolicy/ NEI Public Policy Information]
• Robert J. Duffy. Nuclear Politics in America: A History and Theory of Government Regulation (Studies in Government and Public Policy). Paperback. 1997. {{ISBN|0-7006-0853-2}}.
• Carlton Stoiber, Alec Baer, Norbert Pelzer, Wolfram Tonhauser, [http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1160_web.pdf Handbook on Nuclear Law], IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), 2003.
• [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues/Nuclear+Power Annotated bibliography for nuclear power from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]
• [http://www.fairewinds.org/ Fairewinds Energy Education]
• Schneider, Mycle, Steve Thomas, Antony Froggatt, Doug Koplow (2016). The World Nuclear Industry Status Report: World Nuclear Industry Status as of 1 January 2016.

{{Nuclear power by country}}

{{Nuclear technology}}

{{Public policy}}

Category:Nuclear energy policy

Category:Nuclear history