Occitan phonology

Below is a consonant chart that covers multiple dialects. Where symbols for consonants occur in pairs, the left represents a voiceless consonant and the right represents a voiced consonant.

; Notes:

• The phoneme {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is mostly found in Southern Occitan (written {{angbr|(i)sh}} in Gascon, {{angbr|ch}} in Provençal, and {{angbr|(i)ss}} in Languedocien).
• The distinction between {{IPA|/v/}} {{angbr|v}} and {{IPA|/b/}} {{angbr|b}} is general in Provençal, Vivaro-Alpine, Auvergnat and Limousin. However, in Languedocien and Gascon, the phonemes {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/v/}} are neutralized as {{IPA|/b/}} (thus {{IPA|/v/}} has disappeared).
• In Languedocien:
• the phonemes {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} indicate three kinds of sounds, depending on what surrounds them:
• a voiced plosive sound {{IPA|[b, d, ɡ]}} by default
• devoiced to {{IPA|[p, t, k]}} phrase-finally or before a voiceless sound
• a voiced fricative {{IPA|[β, ð, ɣ]}} when both preceded and followed by voiced continuants (i.e., vowels or {{IPA|[r, l, z]}}) within the same phrase.
• the phonemes {{IPA|/ts/}} and {{IPA|/dz/}} and the sequences {{IPA|/p+s/, /k+s/}} are neutralized as {{IPA|/ts/}} (thus {{IPA|/dz/}}, {{IPA|/p+s/}} and {{IPA|/k+s/}} have disappeared).
• In Auvergnat and Limousin, and locally in other dialects,
• the phonemes {{IPA|/ts/}} and {{IPA|/tʃ/}} are neutralized as {{IPA|/ts/}} (thus {{IPA|/tʃ/}} has disappeared).
• the phonemes {{IPA|/dz/}} and {{IPA|/dʒ/}} are neutralized as {{IPA|/dz/}} (thus {{IPA|/dʒ/}} has disappeared).
• In Auvergnat, most of the consonants, except {{IPA|/r/}}, can have a palatalized sound before i and u. Consequently, the consonant phonemes have two kinds of sounds, one being not palatal (by default) and the other being palatal (before i and u): {{IPA|/p/}} → {{IPA|[p, pj]}}; {{IPA|/b/}} → {{IPA|[b, bj]}}; {{IPA|/t/}} → {{IPA|[t, tj]}}; {{IPA|/d/}} → {{IPA|[d, dj]}}; {{IPA|/k/}} → {{IPA|[k, kj]}}; {{IPA|/ɡ/}} → {{IPA|[ɡ, ɡj]}}; {{IPA|/f/}} → {{IPA|[f, fj]}}; {{IPA|/v/}} → {{IPA|[v, vj]}}; {{IPA|/s/}} → {{IPA|[s, ʃ]}}; {{IPA|/z/}} → {{IPA|[z, ʒ]}}; {{IPA|/ts/}} → {{IPA|[ts, tʃ]}}; {{IPA|/dz/}} → {{IPA|[dz, dʒ]}}; {{IPA|/m/}} → {{IPA|[m, mj]}}; {{IPA|/n/}} → {{IPA|[n, nj]}}; {{IPA|/l/}} → {{IPA|[l, lj]}}.
• In one part (and only one part) of Limousin,{{which|date=June 2015}} a transphonologization has occurred:
• The old phonemes {{IPA|/ts/}}, {{IPA|/dz/}} have now become {{IPA|[s]}}, {{IPA|[z]}}, less frequently {{IPA|[θ]}}, {{IPA|[ð]}}.
• The old phonemes {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}} have now become {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, {{IPA|[ʒ]}}, less frequently {{IPA|[h]}}, {{IPA|[ɦ]}}.
• In the Provençal in general, and partially in other dialects, the phonemes {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/ʎ/}} are neutralized as {{IPA|/j/}} (thus {{IPA|/ʎ/}} has disappeared).
• The original rhotic consonants, {{IPA|/ɾ/}} (tapped) and {{IPA|/r/}} (trilled), have shown important evolutions:
• In Provençal and partially in other dialects, there is now an opposition between {{IPA|/ɾ/}} (tapped) and {{IPA|/ʀ/}} (uvular) (whereas {{IPA|/r/}} has disappeared). This feature is shared with Portuguese. In the cases when the opposition is impossible between the two phonemes, the default realization is {{IPA|/ʀ/}} (it was {{IPA|/r/}} in the original pattern).
• In most of Limousin, Auvergne, Vivarais and Niçard, the phonemes {{IPA|/ɾ/}} and {{IPA|/r/}} are neutralized as {{IPA|/r/}} (or even {{IPA|/ʀ/}}).

• Gascon shares some traits with Languedocien:
• The phonemes {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} have the same realization as described above for Languedocien.
• The phonemes {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/v/}} of the general pattern are neutralized as {{IPA|/b/}}. It seems possible, however, that the phoneme {{IPA|/v/}} never existed in Gascon.
• Gascon and Southern Languedocien do not have the semivowel {{IPA|/ɥ/}} (Gascon has {{IPA|/w/}}, SL has {{IPA|/β/}}) and have the same distribution for the phonemes {{IPA|/dʒ/}} {{angbr|tg, tj}} and {{IPA|/ʒ/}} {{angbr|j, g}}.
• A glottal fricative sound {{IPA|/h/}} is recognized among the dialects of Gascon.
• In one part of Gascon,{{which|date=June 2015}} the palatal affiricates {{IPA|/tʃ/}} {{IPA|/dʒ/}} become plosive palatal consonants: {{IPA|[c], [ɟ]}}.

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

|}

{{notelist}}

Note:

• The grapheme {{angbr|a}}, when in final position and after the word's stress, is pronounced {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in general (locally: {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}}).
• The grapheme {{angbr|á}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in general (locally: {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}).
• Final {{angbr|o}} is generally used in loanwords, especially from Catalan, Spanish and Italian.

In an unstressed position, some vowels cannot be realized and become more closed vowels:

• The stressed vowel {{IPA|/ɛ/}} {{angbr|è}} becomes the unstressed vowel {{IPA|[e]}} {{angbr|e}}. For instance (stress underlined): tèrra {{IPA|/ˈtɛrrɔ/}} → terrassa {{IPA|/teˈrrasɔ/}}.
• The stressed vowel {{IPA|/ɔ/}} {{angbr|ò}} becomes the unstressed vowel {{IPA|[u]}} {{angbr|o}}. For instance (stress underlined): còde {{IPA|/ˈkɔde/}} → codificar {{IPA|/kudifiˈka/}}.
• In some local dialects, especially in the Languedocien variety of Guyenne, the stressed vowel {{IPA|/a/}} {{angbr|a}} becomes the unstressed vowel {{IPA|[ɔ]}} {{angbr|a}}. For instance (stress underlined): bala {{IPA|/ˈbalɔ/}} → balon {{IPA|/bɔˈlu/}}.
• Also in Guyenne, the vowel {{angbr|a}}, when stressed, is pronounced {{IPA|[ɔ]}} when followed by a nasal consonant such as {{IPA|/n, m, ɲ/}} {{angbr|n, m, nh}} or a final {{angbr|n}} that is silent: montanha, pan {{IPA|/munˈtɔɲɔ, ˈpɔ/}} (instead of {{IPA|/munˈtaɲɔ, ˈpa/}}). Javanese also similarly has such vowel rounding, although the penultimate vowel {{IPA|/ɔ/}} (< {{IPA|/*a/}}) could occur before any consonant.
• In Limousin, Auvergnat, Vivaro-Alpine and in most of Provençal (though not in Niçard), the stressed diphthong {{IPA|/aw/}} {{angbr|au}} becomes the unstressed diphthong {{IPA|[ɔw]}} {{angbr|au}}. For instance (stress underlined): sauta {{IPA|/ˈsawtɔ/}} → sautar {{IPA|/sɔwˈta/}}.
• In Limousin, Auvergnat, Vivaro-Alpine and in most of Provençal (though not in Niçard), the stressed diphthong {{IPA|/aj/}} {{angbr|ai}} becomes the unstressed diphthong {{IPA|[ej]}} {{angbr|ai}}. For instance (stress underlined): laissa {{IPA|/ˈlajsɔ/}} → laissar {{IPA|/lejˈsa/}}.

One typical characteristic of Auvergnat (also a feature of some neighbouring dialects of Vivaro-Alpine) is the transformation of the following phonemes:

• The old phoneme {{IPA|/ɛ/}} has become {{IPA|[e]}}.
• The old phoneme {{IPA|/e/}} has become {{IPA|[ə]}} or {{IPA|[ɪ]}}.

In an unstressed position, some vowels cannot be realized and become more closed vowels:

• The stressed vowel {{IPA|/e/}} {{angbr|è}} becomes the unstressed vowel {{IPA|[ə (ɪ)]}} {{angbr|e}}. For instance (stress underlined): tèrra {{IPA|/ˈterɔ/}} → terrassa {{IPA|/təˈrasɔ/}}.
• The stressed vowel {{IPA|/ɔ/}} {{angbr|ò}} becomes the unstressed vowel {{IPA|[u]}} {{angbr|o}}. For instance (stress underlined): còde {{IPA|/ˈkɔdə/}} → codificar {{IPA|/kudifiˈka/}}.
• In the northern part of Auvergne, the stressed vowel {{IPA|/a/}} {{angbr|a}} (unrounded) becomes the unstressed vowel {{IPA|[ɒ]}} {{angbr|a}} (rounded). For instance (stress underlined): bala {{IPA|/ˈbalɔ/}} → balon {{IPA|/bɒˈlu/}}.
• The stressed diphthong {{IPA|/aw/}} {{angbr|au}} becomes the unstressed diphthong {{IPA|[ɔw (u, œ)]}} {{angbr|au}}. For instance (stress underlined): sauta {{IPA|/ˈsawtɔ/}} → sautar {{IPA|/sɔwˈta/}}.
• The stressed diphthong {{IPA|/aj/}} {{angbr|ai}} becomes the unstressed diphthong {{IPA|[ej (i)]}} {{angbr|ai}}. For instance (stress underlined): laissa {{IPA|/ˈlajsɔ/}} → laissar {{IPA|/lejˈsa/}}.

A strong characteristic of Limousin (also a feature of some neighbouring dialects of Vivaro-Alpine) is the neutralization of the phonemes {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in one single phoneme {{IPA|/e/}}, that can have various degrees of opening.

In words of popular formation, the sequences {{angbr|as, es, is, òs, os, us, ues}} {{IPA|[as, es, is, ɔs, us, ys, œs]}}, when at the end of a syllable, first became {{IPA|[ah, eh, ih, ɔh, uh, yh, œh]}} and have now become long vowels, {{IPA|[aː, (ej), iː, ɔː, uː, yː, œː]}}, which tends to create new phonemes with a relevant opposition between short vowels and long vowels. The same phenomenon exists in one part of Vivarais,{{which|date=June 2015}} and also occurred in the transition from Old to Middle French.

In unstressed positions, vowels {{IPA|/i, y, u/}} become lax sounds {{IPA|[ɪ, ʏ, ʊ]}}.

In an unstressed position, some vowels cannot be realized and become more closed vowels:

• The stressed vowel {{IPA|/ɔ/}} {{angbr|ò}} becomes the unstressed vowel {{IPA|[u]}} {{angbr|o}}. For instance (stress underlined): còde {{IPA|/ˈkɔde/}} → codificar {{IPA|/kudifiˈka/}}.
• The stressed vowel {{IPA|/a/}} {{angbr|a}} (unrounded) becomes the unstressed vowel {{IPA|[ɒ]}} {{angbr|a}} (rounded). For instance (stress underlined): bala {{IPA|/ˈbalɔ/}} → balon {{IPA|/bɒˈlu/}}.
• The stressed diphthong {{IPA|/aw/}} {{angbr|au}} becomes the unstressed diphthong {{IPA|[ɔw]}} {{angbr|au}}. For instance (stress underlined): sauta {{IPA|/ˈsawtɔ/}} → sautar {{IPA|/sɔwˈta/}}.
• The stressed diphthong {{IPA|/aj/}} {{angbr|ai}} becomes the unstressed diphthong {{IPA|[ej]}} {{angbr|ai}}. For instance (stress underlined): laissa {{IPA|/ˈlajsɔ/}} → laissar {{IPA|/lejˈsa/}}.

{{unreferenced section|date=August 2015}}

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

|}

• In Limousin and Auvergnat, final consonants, except for {{angbr|nh}} and {{angbr|m}}, are generally muted when not directly followed by a word with a vocalic initial: filh {{IPA|[fi]}}, potz {{IPA|[pu]}}, fach {{IPA|[fa]}}, limon {{IPA|[liˈmu]}} but estelum {{IPA|[ejteˈlun]}}, estanh {{IPA|[ejˈtan]}}, un fach ancian {{IPA|[yn fats ɔnˈsja]}}.
• In Limousin and Auvergnat, when a diphthong starts in {{angbr|o}} or {{angbr|u}}, it is always a rising diphthong: boisson {{IPA|[bwiˈsu]}} (Auvergnat) and {{IPA|[bwejˈsu]}} (Limousin) versus {{IPA|[bujˈsu]}} (Languedocien) or {{IPA|[bujˈsun]}} (Provençal).
• In all dialects but Languedocien, final {{angbr|l}} is heavily velarized ("dark l") and therefore usually spelled {{angbr|u}}: especial {{IPA|[espeˈsjaɫ]}} / especiau {{IPA|[espeˈsjaw]}} but especiala {{IPA|[espeˈsjalɔ]}} in the feminine (except in Gascon where it stays as especiau).

Word stress has limited mobility. It can only fall on:

• the last syllable (oxytones or mots aguts 'acute words')
• the penultimate syllable (paroxytones or mots plans 'plain words').
• However, in Niçard, and less commonly in the Cisaupenc dialect of the Occitan Valleys, the stress can also fall on the antepenultimate (third from last) syllable (proparoxytones or mots esdrúchols 'slip words'). These were regarded as irregular stress in the orthography and they marked by diacritics (see below).

These proparoxytones are equivalent to paroxytones in all other dialects. For instance (stress underlined):

The stress is oxytone if the last syllable ending in a consonant or a diphthong ending in -u or -i (occitan /utsiˈta/, verai); while the stress is penultimate if the last syllable ending in a vowel (or vowel + -s) and vowel + -n when in the case of third-person plural verb forms (libre, libres, parlan), the stress is also penultimate when the syllable ending in two different vowels (estatua). Irregular stresses is normally marked orthographically by acutes (á, é, í, ó, ú) and graves (à, è, ò).

As a Romance language, Occitan developed from Vulgar Latin. Old Occitan (around the eighth through the fourteenth centuries) had a similar pronunciation to present-day Occitan; the major differences were:

• Before the 13th century, {{angbr|c}} had softened before front vowels to {{IPA|[t͡s]}},{{Harvcoltxt|Grandgent|1905|p=4}} not yet to {{IPA|[s]}}.{{Harvcoltxt|McGee|Rigg|Klausner|1996|p=104}} {{quote|The confusion of spellings, such as se for ce, voluntat for volontat, indicate the accomplishment of a phonetic evolution (here {{IPA|[t͡s]}} > {{IPA|[s]}} and atonic {{IPA|[o]}} > {{IPA|[u]}}).}}
• In the early Middle Ages, {{angbr|z}} between vowels represented the affricate {{IPAblink|d͡z}}, not yet {{IPA|/z/}}.
• In early Old Occitan, {{angbr|z}} represented {{IPA|[t͡s]}} in final position.{{Harvtxt|McGee|Rigg|Klausner|1996|p=110}} {{quote|Although z originally denoted the voiced affricate {{IPA|[dz]}}, it simplified to {{IPA|[z]}}, as {{IPA|[t͡s]}} simplified to {{IPA|[s]}}, but at an earlier date. The spellings s and z alternate even in the earlier troubadours, indicating the pronunciation {{IPA|[z]}} in such words as cortesia/cortezia, rosa/roza, gilosa/giloza. In final position -z is pronounced {{IPA|[t͡s]}}, also spelled -tz: toz/totz, maritz, amanz, parlatz, tertz. }}
• In the late Middle Ages, the letter {{angbr|a}} went from {{IPA|[a]}} to {{IPA|[ɑ]}} in unaccented position and in stressed syllables followed by a nasal consonant.{{Harvcoltxt|McGee|Rigg|Klausner|1996|p=104}} {{quote|When we note that tonic -a followed by unstable n does not rhyme with regular tonic -a, we have confirmation of two a-phonemes, the normal {{IPA|[a]}} (anterior a) and the posterior {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, as well as confirmation that Old Occitan does not nasalize vowels followed by nasal consonants, as Old French does.}}
• When not part of a diphthong, the vowel spelled {{angbr|o}} was probably pronounced as {{IPAblink|ʊ}},{{Harvcoltxt|Anglade|1921|p=20}} not yet {{IPA|[u]}}.
• Between vowels, the letter {{angbr|i}} or {{angbr|j}} represented, for most speech in Occitania, {{IPAblink|j}}. However, this could become {{IPAblink|ʒ}}, especially down south:{{Harvcoltxt|Anglade|1921|p=22}}: {{quote|Les manuscrits ne distinguaient pas i intervocalique de j: on hésite donc sur la prononciation des mots suivants: veraia, aia, raia, saia, etc. Lienig, se fondant sur le témoignage et sur la graphie des Leys [d'Amor], admet comme vraisemblable une prononciation de i voyelle ou semi-consonne dans le Nord de l'Occitanie, et de j dans le Sud. La prononciation -aja (comme dans fr. âge) serait rare dans les rimes des troubadours.}} it later became {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}, which, in turn, would locally depalatalize to {{IPAblink|d͡z}} in Middle Occitan.
• In words where {{IPA|/ɾ/}} was preceded by a diphthong whose second element was {{IPA|[j]}}, it was sometimes palatalized to {{IPA|[rʲ]}}.{{Harvcoltxt|Grandgent|1905|p=5}}
• In earlier times, some dialects used {{IPAblink|ç}} instead of the more common {{IPAblink|ʃ}}: despite their similarity, this often led to contrasting spellings ({{angbr|laishar}} or {{angbr|laischar}} {{IPA|[lajˈʃaɾ]}} vs. {{angbr|laichar}} {{IPA|[lajˈçaɾ]}}; {{angbr|fois}} or {{angbr|foish}} {{IPA|[fʊjʃ]}} vs. {{angbr|foih}} {{IPA|[fʊiç]}}) before it became {{IPA|[s]}} commonly across the language ({{angbr|laissar}} {{IPA|[lajˈsaɾ]}}, {{angbr|Fois}} {{IPA|[fujs]}}).{{harvcoltxt|Société pour l'Étude des Langues Romanes|1877}} {{quote|...plusieurs dialectes de l'ancienne langue, y compris le limousin, comme le prouvent des textes de Limoges et de Périgueux, changeaient souvent l's dure suivant i, particulièrement i engagé dans une diphthongue, en une consonne probablement identique au ch français, et qu'on figurait sch, sh ou ch. Sur sh, voyez un passage des Leys d'amors, I, 62, qui prouve clairement que cette combinaison n'avait pas la valeur d'une s simple. Les trois notations, ou seulement deux d'entre elles, sont quelquefois employées concurremment dans les mêmes textes, ce qui démontre leur équivalence. Ainsi les Coutumes de Limoges ont ayschí, punischen, mais plus souvent, par ch, laychen, poicha, etc.}}
• In the pre-literary period of early Old Occitan {{IPA|/u/}} had not been fronted to {{IPA|[y]}}, although strong doubts exist as to when the change actually happened.
• When between vowels, {{IPA|/d/}} lenited to {{IPAblink|ð}}, though this is still true for only Gascon and Languedocien dialects; elsewhere, it eventually turned to {{IPA|[z]}} or was deleted.{{Harvcoltxt|Grandgent|1905|p=8}}
• In Gascon, there was one voiced labial phoneme that was {{IPA|[b]}} in the beginning of a word and {{IPA|[β]}} between vowels.{{Harvcoltxt|Grandgent|1905|p=7}} This still happens today and has spread to the neighbouring Languedocien dialect.
• The phoneme {{angbr|lh}} was exclusively pronounced {{IPA|[ʎ]}} (it is now {{IPA|[j]}} in intervocalic or final position in some dialects).{{Harvcoltxt|McGee|Rigg|Klausner|1996|p=105}} {{quote|The Italian notation gl and the Catalanized ll, both indicating {{IPA|[ʎ]}}, give evidence of the palatalized pronunciation of Occitan lh. Likewise, the transcription of Occitan words in non-Latin alphabets such as Hebrew or Greek may confirm their pronunciation with more precision.}}

{{unreferenced section|date=August 2015}}

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

| style="vertical-align: top;" |

|}

• Catalan phonology
• Occitan conjugation
• Occitan alphabet

{{reflist}}

• {{cite book |last=Anglade |first=Joseph |year=1921 |title=Grammaire de l'Ancien Provençal ou Ancienne Langue d'Oc |place=Paris |publisher=Librarie C.Klincksieck |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k255748j}}
• {{cite book |last1=Balaguer |first1=Claudi |last2=Pojada |first2=Patrici |title=Diccionari Català - Occità / Occitan - Catalan |isbn=9788495317988 |publisher=Llibres de l'Índex |location=Barcelona |year=2005}}
• {{cite book |last=Bèc |first=Pèire |year=1973 |title=Manuel pratique d'occitan moderne |series=Connaissance des langues |location=Paris |publisher=A & J Picard}}
• {{cite book |last1=Bianchi |first1=Andriu |last2=Viaut |first2=Alan |year=1995 |title=Fiches de grammaire d'occitan gascon normé |volume=1 |location=Bordeaux |publisher=Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux}}
• {{cite book |last=Blanchet |first=Philippe |year=1999 |title=Parlons Provençal |location=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan}}
• {{cite book |last1=Fettuciari |first1=Jòrgi |last2=Martin |first2=Guiu |last3=Pietri |first3=Jaume |title=Diccionari Provençau - Francés |date=2003 |publisher=Edisud |isbn=9782744904646}}
• {{cite book |last=Grandgent |first=C.H. |year=1905 |title=An Outline of the Phonology and Morphology of Old Provençal |place=Boston |publisher=Heath |series=Heath's modern language series |ol=14032936M}}
• {{cite book |last1=McGee |first1=Timothy James |last2=Rigg |first2=A. G. |author-link2=A. G. Rigg |last3=Klausner |first3=David N. |year=1996 |title=Singing Early Music: The Pronunciation of European Languages in the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance |volume=1}}
• {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Oliviéri |first1=Michèle |last2=Sauzet |first2=Patrick |year=2016 |title=Southern Gallo-Romance (Occitan) |editor-first1=Adam |editor-last1=Ledgeway |editor-first2=Martin |editor-last2=Maiden |encyclopedia=The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199677108.003.0019 |pages=319–349|isbn=978-0199677108 }}
• {{cite book |last1=Romieu |first1=Maurici |last2=Bianchi |first2=Andriu |year=2005 |title=Gramatica de l'occitan gascon contemporanèu |location=Bordeaux |publisher=Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux}}
• {{cite book |last=Ronjat |first=Jules |year=1930–1941 |title=Grammaire istorique des parlers provençaux modernes |volume=1-4 |oclc=2139580}}
• {{cite book |last=Ronjat |first=Jules |year=1930 |title=Grammaire istorique des parlers provençaux modernes |volume=1 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58339580 |location=Montpelier |publisher=Société des langues romanes}}
• {{cite book |last=Ronjat |first=Jules |year=1932 |title=Grammaire istorique des parlers provençaux modernes |volume=2 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58339580 |location=Montpelier |publisher=Société des langues romanes}}
• {{cite book |last=Ronjat |first=Jules |year=1937 |title=Grammaire istorique des parlers provençaux modernes |volume=3 |location=Montpelier |publisher=Société des langues romanes}}
• {{cite book |last=Ronjat |first=Jules |year=1941 |title=Grammaire istorique des parlers provençaux modernes |volume=4 |location=Montpelier |publisher=Société des langues romanes}}
• {{cite journal |author=Société pour l'Étude des Langues Romanes |journal=Revue des langues romanes |department=Dialectes modernes |title=Grammaire limousine: Additions et corrections |year=1877 |page=17 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k19834v/f17.item}}
• {{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Max |year=1997 |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=Martin |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Nigel |chapter=Occitan |title=The Romance Languages

|series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-16417-6 |pages=246–278 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1o0SsC}}

• {{cite book |isbn=9782911551321 |title=Dictionnaire occitan/Francais: Limousin, Marche, Périgord : étymologies occitanes |last1=Lavalade |first1=Yves |date=1999 |publisher=Lucien Souny }}
• {{cite book |isbn=9782914662086 |title=Petiòt diccionari occitan d'Auvernhe-francés: Auvernhe meijornal |last1=Omelhièr |first1=Cristian |date=2007 |publisher=Ostal del Libre }}

{{Language phonologies}}

Category:Occitan language

Category:Languages of France

Category:Italic phonologies

it:Pronuncia dell'occitano