Outline of evolution
{{Short description|Overview of and topical guide to change in the heritable characteristics of organisms}}
{{See also|Index of evolutionary biology articles|Evolution (disambiguation)}}
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to evolution:
File:CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg
{{Evolutionary biology}}
In biology, evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological organisms over generations due to natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift. Also known as descent with modification. Over time these evolutionary processes lead to formation of new species (speciation), changes within lineages (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction). "Evolution" is also another name for evolutionary biology, the subfield of biology concerned with studying evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth.
Fundamentals about evolution
{{Life timeline}}
=Introduction=
- {{Annotated link|Introduction to evolution}}
- {{Annotated link|Evolution}}
- {{Annotated link|Evolution as fact and theory}}
=Basic principles=
- {{annotated link|Macroevolution}}
- {{annotated link|Speciation}}
- Natural speciation
- {{annotated link|Allopatric speciation}}
- {{annotated link|Reinforcement (speciation)}}
- {{annotated link|Peripatric speciation}}
- {{annotated link|Parapatric speciation}}
- {{annotated link|Sympatric speciation}}
- Artificial speciation
- {{annotated link|Animal husbandry}}
- {{annotated link|Plant breeding}}
- {{annotated link|Genetic engineering}}
- {{annotated link|Hybrid speciation}}
- {{annotated link|Despeciation}}
- {{annotated link|Anagenesis}}
- {{annotated link|Extinction}}
- {{annotated link|Microevolution}}
- {{annotated link|Artificial selection}}
- {{annotated link|Natural selection}}
- {{annotated link|Sexual selection}}
- {{annotated link|Mutation}}
- {{annotated link|Gene flow}}
- {{annotated link|Genetic drift}}
=Subfields=
- {{annotated link|Biology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary biology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary developmental biology}}
- {{annotated link|Genetics}}
- {{annotated link|Biogeography}}
- {{annotated link|Ecological genetics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary biology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary developmental biology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary ecology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary physiology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary taxonomy}}
- {{annotated link|Experimental evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Molecular evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogenetics}}
- {{annotated link|Population genetics}}
- {{annotated link|Paleontology}}
- {{annotated link|Paleovirology}}
- {{annotated link|Timeline of paleontology}}
- {{annotated link|Systematics}}
=History=
- {{annotated link|Charles Darwin}}
- {{annotated link|On the Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species}}
- {{annotated link|Caricatures of Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory in 19th-century England}}
- {{annotated link|Darwinism}}
- {{annotated link|History of evolutionary thought}}
- By period or event
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment}}
- {{annotated link|Transmutation of species}}
- {{annotated link|1860 Oxford evolution debate}}
- {{annotated link|Neo-Darwinism}}
- {{annotated link|The eclipse of Darwinism}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary progress}}
- {{annotated link|Scopes Trial}}
- {{annotated link|Modern synthesis (20th century)|Modern synthesis}}
- {{annotated link|Extended evolutionary synthesis}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary biology#Current research topics|Current research}}
- By field
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary developmental biology}}
- {{annotated link|History of evolutionary psychology}}
- {{annotated link|History of molecular evolution}}
- {{annotated link|History of paleontology}}
- {{annotated link|Social effect of evolutionary theory}}
Evolutionary theory and modelling
See also Basic principles (above)
=Population genetics=
- {{annotated link|Population genetics}}
- Process
- {{annotated link|Mutation}}
- {{annotated link|Selection (biology)|Selection}}
- {{annotated link|Natural selection}}
- {{annotated link|Sexual selection}}
- {{annotated link|Artificial selection}}
- {{annotated link|Ecological selection}}
- {{annotated link|Gene flow}}
- {{annotated link|Genetic drift}}
- {{annotated link|Small population size}}
- {{annotated link|Population bottleneck}}
- {{annotated link|Founder effect}}
- {{annotated link|Coalescent theory}}
- Variation
- {{annotated link|Genetic variation}}
- {{annotated link|Genetic diversity}}
- {{annotated link|Gene frequency}}
- {{annotated link|Polymorphism (biology)}}
- Key concepts
- {{annotated link|Hardy–Weinberg principle|Hardy-Weinberg law}}
- {{annotated link|Genetic linkage}}
- {{annotated link|Identity by descent}}
- {{annotated link|Linkage disequilibrium}}
- {{annotated link|Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection|Fisher's fundamental theorem}}
- {{annotated link|Neutral theory of molecular evolution|Neutral theory}}
- {{annotated link|Shifting balance theory}}
- {{annotated link|Price equation}}
- {{annotated link|Coefficient of relationship}}
- {{annotated link|Fitness (biology)|Fitness}}
- {{annotated link|Heritability}}
- Effects of selection
- {{annotated link|Genetic hitchhiking}}
- {{annotated link|Negative selection (natural selection)}}
- Related topics
- {{annotated link|Microevolution}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary game theory}}
- {{annotated link|Fitness landscape}}
- {{annotated link|Genetic genealogy}}
- {{annotated link|Quantitative genetics}}
=Evolutionary phenomena=
- {{annotated link|Adaptation}}
- {{annotated link|Adaptive radiation}}
- {{annotated link|Coevolution}}
- {{annotated link|Concerted evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Convergent evolution}}
- {{annotated link|List of examples of convergent evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Divergent evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Divergent evolution in animals}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of ageing}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of biological complexity}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of multicellularity}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of photosynthesis}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of sexual reproduction}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary arms race}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary capacitance}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary fauna}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary pressure}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary radiation}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary trap}}
- {{annotated link|Evolvability}}
- {{annotated link|Exaptation}}
- {{annotated link|Extinction}}
- {{annotated link|Fitness (biology)}}
- {{annotated link|Inclusive fitness}}
- {{annotated link|Kin selection}}
- {{annotated link|Reproductive success}}
- {{annotated link|Genetic recombination}}
- {{annotated link|Horizontal gene transfer in evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Human evolution (origins of society and culture)}}
- {{annotated link|Inversion (evolutionary biology)}}
- {{annotated link|Mosaic evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Parallel evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Quantum evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Recurrent evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Robustness (evolution)}}
- {{annotated link|Speciation}}
=Modelling=
- {{annotated link|Emergent evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Epic of evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution window}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary dynamics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary game theory}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary graph theory}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary invasion analysis}}
- {{annotated link|Largest-scale trends in evolution}}
Taxonomy, systematics, and phylogeny
=Fundamentals=
- {{annotated link|Taxonomy (biology)|Taxonomy}}
- {{annotated link|Alpha taxonomy}}
- {{annotated link|Biological classification}}
- {{annotated link|Binomial nomenclature}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary taxonomy}}
- {{annotated link|Catalogue of life}}
- {{annotated link|Homonym (biology)}}
- {{annotated link|Integrated Taxonomic Information System}}
- {{annotated link|International Code of Zoological Nomenclature}}
- {{annotated link|International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants}}
- {{annotated link|Linnaean taxonomy}}
- {{annotated link|Phenetics}}
- {{annotated link|Species 2000}}
- {{annotated link|Taxon}}
- {{annotated link|Taxonomic rank}}
- {{annotated link|Type (biology)}}
- {{annotated link|Species description}}
- {{annotated link|Systematics}}
- {{annotated link|Cladogram}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogenetic tree}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogenetics}}
- {{annotated link|Cladistics}}
- {{annotated link|Computational phylogenetics}}
- {{annotated link|Common descent}}
- {{annotated link|Evidence of common descent}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary grade}}
- {{annotated link|Lineage (evolution)}}
- {{annotated link|Molecular phylogenetics}}
- {{annotated link|Most recent common ancestor}}
=Basic concepts of phylogenetics=
- {{annotated link|Phylogenetic tree}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogenetic network}}
- {{annotated link|Long branch attraction}}
- {{annotated link|Clade}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary grade|Grade}}
- {{annotated link|Ghost lineage}}
=Inference methods=
- {{annotated link|Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)}}
- {{annotated link|Minimum evolution}}
- Probabilistic methods
- {{annotated link|Maximum likelihood estimation}}
- {{annotated link|Bayesian inference in phylogeny|Bayesian inference}}
- {{annotated link|Distance matrices in phylogeny}}
- {{annotated link|Neighbor joining}}
- {{annotated link|UPGMA|Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean|abbreviation=UPGMA}}
- {{annotated link|Least squares inference in phylogeny}}
- {{annotated link|Three-taxon analysis}}
=Current topics=
- {{annotated link|PhyloCode|aka=International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature}}
- {{annotated link|DNA barcoding}}
- {{annotated link|Molecular phylogenetics}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogenetic comparative methods}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogenetic network}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogenetic niche conservatism}}
- {{annotated link|List of phylogenetics software}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogenomics}}
- {{annotated link|Phylogeography}}
- {{annotated link|DNA phylogeny}}
=Group Traits=
- {{annotated link|Symplesiomorphy}}
- {{annotated link|Synapomorphy|Apomorphy}}
- {{annotated link|Synapomorphy}}
- {{annotated link|Autapomorphy}}
=Group Types=
- {{annotated link|Monophyly}}
- {{annotated link|Paraphyly}}
- {{annotated link|Polyphyly}}
Evolution of biodiversity
- {{annotated link|Biodiversity}}
=Origin and evolutionary history of life=
- {{annotated link|Abiogenesis}}
- {{annotated link|History of life}}
- {{annotated link|Timeline of the evolutionary history of life}}
=Evolution of organisms=
==Evolution of tetrapods==
- {{annotated link|Evolution of tetrapods}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of dinosaurs}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of birds}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of mammals}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of cetaceans}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of the horse|Evolution of horses}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of primates}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of humans}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of human intelligence}}
- {{annotated link|Human evolutionary genetics}}
- {{annotated link|Sexual selection in human evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Timeline of human evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of lemurs}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of sirenians}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of reptiles}}
==Evolution of other animals==
- {{annotated link|Evolution of brachiopods}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of cephalopods}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of fish}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of insects}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of butterflies}}
- {{annotated link|Peppered moth evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of molluscs}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of spiders}}
==Evolution of plants==
- {{annotated link|Evolution of plants}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary anachronism}}
- {{annotated link|Plant evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Plant evolutionary developmental biology}}
- {{annotated link|Timeline of plant evolution}}
==Evolution of other taxa==
- {{annotated link|Evolution of fungi}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of viruses}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of influenza}}
- {{annotated link|E. coli long-term evolution experiment}}
=Evolution of cells, organs, and systems=
- {{annotated link|Evolution of cells}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of flagella}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of nervous systems}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of snake venom}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of the brain}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of the eye}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of color vision}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of color vision in primates}}
- {{annotated link|Immune system#Other mechanisms and evolution|Immune system}}
- {{annotated link|Metabolism#Evolution|Evolution of metabolism}}
=Evolution of molecules and genes=
- {{annotated link|Directed evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Error threshold (evolution)}}
- {{annotated link|Gene-centered view of evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Genome evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Hologenome theory of evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Models of DNA evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Molecular evolution}}
- {{annotated link|History of molecular evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Neutral theory of molecular evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Neutral network (evolution)}}
- {{annotated link|RNA-based evolution}}
=Evolution of behaviour=
- {{annotated link|Co-operation (evolution)}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of biparental care in tropical frogs}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of emotion}}
- {{annotated link|Empathy#Evolution|Evolution of empathy}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of eusociality}}
- {{annotated link|Monogamy in animals}}
- {{annotated link|Reciprocal altruism}}
- {{annotated link|Reciprocity (evolution)}}
=Evolution of other processes=
- {{annotated link|Evolution of ageing}}
- {{annotated link|Death#Evolution of aging and mortality|Evolution of aging and mortality}}
- {{annotated link|Programmed cell death#Evolutionary origin|Origin of programmed cell death}}
- {{annotated link|Origin of avian flight}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of biological complexity}}
- {{annotated link|Mosaic evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of multicellularity}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of sexual reproduction}}
- {{annotated link|Mating type}}s
- {{annotated link|Anisogamy#Evolution of anisogamy|Gamete differentiation/sexes}}
- {{annotated link|Sex-determination system#Evolution of sex-determination systems|Sex-determination}}
- {{annotated link|Biological life cycle|Life cycles/nuclear phases}}
Applications in other disciplines
- {{annotated link|Applications of evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Biological anthropology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary aesthetics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary anthropology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary computation}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary algorithm}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary economics}}
- {{annotated link|Kenneth Boulding's evolutionary perspective}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary epistemology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary ethics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary linguistics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary medicine}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary neuroscience}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary psychology}}
- {{annotated link|Biosocial criminology}}
- {{annotated link|Criticism of evolutionary psychology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of morality}}
- {{annotated link|Evolution of schizophrenia}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary aesthetics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary approaches to depression}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary developmental psychology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary developmental psychopathology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary educational psychology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary ethics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary leadership theory}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary musicology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary origin of religions}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary psychology of language}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary psychology of parenting}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary psychology of religion}}
- {{annotated link|Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary robotics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary systems}}
- {{annotated link|Sociobiology}}
- {{annotated link|Sociocultural evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Cultural evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Universal Darwinism}}
Evolutionary issues
=Controversy about evolution=
- {{annotated link|Creation–evolution controversy}}
- {{annotated link|Outline of the creation–evolution controversy}}
- {{annotated link|Criticism of evolutionary psychology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary argument against naturalism}}
- {{annotated link|Level of support for evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Objections to evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Social effects of evolutionary theory}}
- {{annotated link|Theology of creationism and evolution}}
=Religious and philosophical views of evolution=
- {{annotated link|Acceptance of evolution by religious groups}}
- {{annotated link|Conscious evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Buddhism and evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Catholic Church and evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Hindu views on evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Islamic views on evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Ahmadiyya views on evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Jewish views on evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Mormon views on evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Theistic evolution}}
= Influence of evolutionary theory =
- {{annotated link|Social effects of evolutionary theory}}
- See also Applications in other disciplines
Publications and organizations concerning evolution
=Books=
- Evolution: The Modern Synthesis – book by Julian Huxley (grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley); one of the most important books of modern evolutionary synthesis, published in 1942
- The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection – book by R.A. Fisher important in modern evolutionary synthesis, first published in 1930
- Genetics and the Origin of Species – 1937 book by Ukrainian-American evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky
- On the Origin of Species – seminal book by Charles Darwin concerning evolution by natural selection, first published in 1859
- Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist – book by zoologist and evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, canonical publication of modern evolutionary synthesis, first published in 1942 by Columbia University Press
- The Structure of Evolutionary Theory – technical book on macroevolutionary theory by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary Biology (textbook)|Evolutionary Biology}}
=Journals=
- {{annotated link|Evolution (journal)|Evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary Anthropology (journal)|Evolutionary Anthropology}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary Bioinformatics|Evolutionary Bioinformatics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary Psychology (journal)|Evolutionary Psychology}}
- {{annotated link|Journal of Evolutionary Biology|Journal of Evolutionary Biology}}
- {{annotated link|Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research|Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research}}
- {{annotated link|Trends (journals)|Trends in Ecology & Evolution|abbreviation=TREE}}
=Organizations=
- {{annotated link|European Society for Evolutionary Biology}}
- {{annotated link|Society for the Study of Evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary psychology research groups and centers}}
- {{annotated link|I. M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry}}
- {{annotated link|Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology}}
- {{annotated link|Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology}}
- {{annotated link|National Evolutionary Synthesis Center}}
- {{annotated link|Systematic and Evolutionary Biogeography Association}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary Informatics Lab}}
Evolution scholars and researchers
- {{annotated link|List of evolutionary psychologists}}
- {{annotated link|List of members of the National Academy of Sciences (Evolutionary biology)}}
=Prominent evolutionary biologists=
- {{annotated link|Charles Darwin}}
- {{annotated link|Theodosius Dobzhansky}}
- {{annotated link|Richard Dawkins}}
- {{annotated link|Stephen Jay Gould}}
- {{annotated link|J. B. S. Haldane}}
- {{annotated link|Julian Huxley}}
- {{annotated link|Thomas Henry Huxley}}
- {{annotated link|Ronald Fisher}}
- {{annotated link|Ernst Mayr}}
- {{annotated link|Alfred Russel Wallace}}
- {{annotated link|Sewall Wright}}
See also
{{portal|Evolutionary biology}}
- {{annotated link|Outline of biology}}
- {{annotated link|Outline of genetics}}
- {{annotated link|Biogeography}}
- {{annotated link|Conscious evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Ecology and Evolutionary Biology}}
- {{annotated link|Effective evolutionary time}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary acquisition of neural topologies}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary anachronism}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary approaches to depression}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary argument against naturalism}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary art}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary music}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary baggage}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary Humanism}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary informatics}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary landscape}}
- {{annotated link|Evolutionary Principle}}
- {{annotated link|Extinction}}
- {{annotated link|Extinction event}}
- {{annotated link|Human extinction}}
- {{annotated link|Local extinction}}
- {{annotated link|MEGA, Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis}}
- {{annotated link|Sloshing bucket model of evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Spandrel (biology)}}
- {{annotated link|Speculative evolution}}
- {{annotated link|Transitional fossil}}
External links
{{sister project links|Evolution}}
;General information
- {{In Our Time|Evolution|p00545gl|Evolution}}
- {{cite web |url = https://www.newscientist.com/topic/evolution |title = Evolution |publisher = New Scientist |access-date = May 30, 2011 }}
- {{cite web |url = http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/ |title = Evolution Resources from the National Academies |publisher = U.S. National Academy of Sciences |access-date = May 30, 2011 }}
- {{cite web |url = http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ |title = Understanding Evolution: your one-stop resource for information on Evolution |publisher = University of California, Berkeley |access-date = May 30, 2011 }}
- {{cite web |url = https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/index.jsp |title = Evolution of Evolution – 150 Years of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" |publisher = National Science Foundation |access-date = May 30, 2011 }}
- [http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive Human Timeline (Interactive)] – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
;Experiments concerning the process of biological evolution
- {{cite web |url = http://myxo.css.msu.edu/index.html |title = Experimental Evolution – Michigan State University|author = Lenski RE|author-link=Richard Lenski|access-date = July 31, 2013}}
- [http://www.pnas.org/content/111/29/10620.full Algorithms, games, and evolution], Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA
;Online lectures
- {{cite web |url = http://www.molbio.wisc.edu/carroll/Fittest.html |title = The Making of the Fittest |author = Carroll SB |author-link = Sean B. Carroll |access-date = May 30, 2011 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110718090526/http://www.molbio.wisc.edu/carroll/Fittest.html |archive-date = July 18, 2011 }}
- {{cite web |url = http://oyc.yale.edu/ecology-and-evolutionary-biology/principles-of-evolution-ecology-and-behavior/ |title = Principles of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior |author = Stearns SC |author-link = Stephen C. Stearns |access-date = August 30, 2011 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110323050059/http://oyc.yale.edu/ecology-and-evolutionary-biology/principles-of-evolution-ecology-and-behavior |archive-date = March 23, 2011 }}
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