Oyster reef

Oyster reefs were once common in estuaries around the world.{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Michael W. |title=Oyster Reefs at Risk and Recommendations for Conservation, Restoration, and Management |journal=BioScience |date=2011 |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=107–116 |doi=10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.5 |s2cid=4993209 |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-lookup/doi/10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.5}} Within the last century there have been significant declines in the extent and condition of oyster reefs globally,{{Cite journal |last=Kirby |first=Michael Xavier |date=2004-08-23 |title=Fishing down the coast: Historical expansion and collapse of oyster fisheries along continental margins |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=101 |issue=35 |pages=13096–13099 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0405150101 |pmid=15326294 |issn=0027-8424|pmc=516522 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2004PNAS..10113096K }} driven by overharvesting of oysters for food provision and lime production, and coastal degradation. Boat wakes can cause oyster shells to be swept toward the shore, where they build up over time into exposed piles in which any remaining oysters will desiccate and die.{{cite web|url=https://www.nature.org/media/florida/oyster_restoration_fact_sheet.pdf|access-date=29 January 2023|publisher=The Nature Conservancy Indian River Lagoon Program|title=Notes from the Field: Indian River Lagoon Oyster Reef Restoration Project}} These piles may also isolate littoral areas from tides and currents, leading to further habitat degradation. Laboratory experiments suggest that in areas of faster flow and higher amounts of suspended sediment, as would be seen in a high-traffic channel, the cyprid larvae of barnacles may outcompete larval oysters in settling onto substrate, a prerequisite for completing their respective life cycles.{{cite thesis|last=Boudreaux|first=Michelle L.|title=Native and Invasive Competitors of the Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica in Mosquito Lagoon, Florida|institution=University of Central Florida|location=Orlando|degree=MSc|year=2005|url=http://purl.fcla.edu/fcla/etd/CFE0000780|access-date=30 January 2023|id=532|via=UCF STARS}}{{rp|40–48}}

In the United States Crassostrea virginica, the eastern oyster, was a major reef builder in the Chesapeake Bay until the late 19th century. Because of overfishing, environmental degradation, and disease, populations of C. virginica underwent a drastic reduction in population size.{{cite journal |last1=Kirby |first1=Michael X. |last2=Miller |first2=Henry M. |date=1 March 2005 |title=Response of a benthic suspension feeder (Crassostrea virginica Gmelin) to three centuries of anthropogenic eutrophication in Chesapeake Bay |journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=679–689 |doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2004.10.004|bibcode=2005ECSS...62..679K }} There is an established pattern connecting human fishing practices, such as dredging, to oyster population collapse across the globe. Besides the collapse of C. virginica reefs on the east coast of the United States, populations of the Olympia oyster, Ostrea lurida, on the western coast of the United States and the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea glomerata, of eastern Australia have both been heavily impacted by harmful fishing practices.{{cite journal |last1=Kirby |first1=Michael |date=2004 |title=Fishing down the coast: Historical expansion and collapse of oyster fisheries along continental margins |journal=PNAS |volume=101 |issue=35 |pages=13096–13099 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0405150101 |pmc=516522 |pmid =15326294 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10113096K |doi-access=free }} While most research has focused on temperate zones it is likely that significant declines have also been observed in tropical regions.{{cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=Marina A. |last2=Zhang |first2=Ya |last3=Connolly |first3=Rod M. |last4=Gillies |first4=Chris L. |last5=McDougall |first5=Carmel |title=Some Like it Hot: The Ecology, Ecosystem Benefits and Restoration Potential of Oyster Reefs in Tropical Waters |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |date=23 June 2022 |volume=9 |page=873768 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2022.873768|doi-access=free |hdl=10072/416403 |hdl-access=free }}

The IUCN's Overall Risk Category assessment of the oyster reef ecosystem in southern and eastern Australia has labeled them as critically endangered.{{Cite journal |last1=Gillies |first1=Chris L. |last2=Castine |first2=Sarah A. |last3=Alleway |first3=Heidi K. |last4=Crawford |first4=Christine |last5=Fitzsimons |first5=James A. |last6=Hancock |first6=Boze |last7=Koch |first7=Paul |last8=McAfee |first8=Dominic |last9=McLeod |first9=Ian M. |last10=zu Ermgassen |first10=Philine S. E. |date=2020-06-01 |title=Conservation status of the Oyster Reef Ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989419305554 |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |language=en |volume=22 |pages=e00988 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00988 |bibcode=2020GEcoC..2200988G |issn=2351-9894|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30139182 |hdl-access=free }}

Natural oyster reefs are composed of living and dead oyster shells and provide important habitat for various species. For example, the complex three-dimensional interstitial spaces within oyster reefs provide refugia for prey or juvenile species, which increases prey biomass and thereby enhances trophic transfer. Oyster reefs also stabilize shorelines by promoting sediment deposition and buffering wave energy, thereby allowing other habitats such as sea grass beds and marsh areas to form while simultaneously decreasing erosion of the shoreline.{{cite journal |last1=La Peyre |first1=M. K. |last2=Furlong |first2=J. |last3=Brown |first3=L. A. |last4=Piazza |first4=B. P. |last5=Brown |first5=K. |date=2014 |title=Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico: extent, methods, and outcomes |journal=Ocean & Coastal Management |volume=89 |pages=20–28 |doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.12.002|bibcode=2014OCM....89...20L }}{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=L. A. |last2=Furlong |first2=J. N. |last3=Brown |first3=K. M. |last4=La Pyre |first4=M. K. |date=2014 |title=Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico: effect and artificial substrate and age on nekton and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage use |journal=Restoration Ecology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=213–222 |doi=10.1111/rec.12071|bibcode=2014ResEc..22..214B |s2cid=84109311 }}{{cite journal |last1=Dillon |first1=K. S. |last2=Peterson |first2=M. S. |last3=May |first3=C. A. |date=2015 |title=Functional equivalence of constructed and natural intertidal eastern oyster reef habitats in a northern Gulf of Mexico estuary |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=528 |pages=187–203 |doi=10.3354/meps11269|bibcode=2015MEPS..528..187D |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=L. M. |last2=De Santiago |first2=K. |last3=Palmer |first3=T. A. |last4=Pollack |first4=J. B. |date=2015 |title=Oyster reef restoration: effect of alternative substrates on oyster recruitment and nekton habitat use |journal=Journal of Coastal Conservation |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=13–22 |doi=10.1007/s11852-014-0351-y|bibcode=2015JCC....19...13G |s2cid=54732481 }}

The filter feeding behavior of oysters can buffer against environmental degradation caused by human-induced eutrophication of estuary systems. Oysters feed on suspended phytoplankton and other organic matter. Disruption of the filter feeding by oysters can lead to a decrease in the elimination of organic matter from the water column and increase phytoplankton abundance. This in turn may lead to seasonal anoxia, which could increase mortality for other estuary animals, such as fish.

Oyster reefs can also impact the carbon sequestration and excess nutrient uptake. Oyster reefs also stabilize shorelines by promoting sediment deposition and buffering wave energy, thereby allowing other habitats such as sea grass beds and marsh areas to form while simultaneously decreasing erosion of the shoreline.{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=L. A. |last2=Furlong |first2=J. N. |last3=Brown |first3=K. M. |last4=La Pyre |first4=M. K. |date=2014 |title=Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico: effect and artificial substrate and age on nekton and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage use |journal=Restoration Ecology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=213–222 |doi=10.1111/rec.12071 |bibcode=2014ResEc..22..214B |s2cid=84109311}}{{cite journal |last1=Dillon |first1=K. S. |last2=Peterson |first2=M. S. |last3=May |first3=C. A. |date=2015 |title=Functional equivalence of constructed and natural intertidal eastern oyster reef habitats in a northern Gulf of Mexico estuary |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=528 |pages=187–203 |bibcode=2015MEPS..528..187D |doi=10.3354/meps11269|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=L. M. |last2=De Santiago |first2=K. |last3=Palmer |first3=T. A. |last4=Pollack |first4=J. B. |date=2015 |title=Oyster reef restoration: effect of alternative substrates on oyster recruitment and nekton habitat use |journal=Journal of Coastal Conservation |volume=19 |pages=13–22 |doi=10.1007/s11852-014-0351-y |bibcode=2015JCC....19...13G |s2cid=54732481}} Oyster reef habitats have been recognized as green infrastructure for shoreline protection.{{Cite journal |last1=Arkema |first1=Katie K. |last2=Guannel |first2=Greg |last3=Verutes |first3=Gregory |last4=Wood |first4=Spencer A. |last5=Guerry |first5=Anne |last6=Ruckelshaus |first6=Mary |last7=Kareiva |first7=Peter |last8=Lacayo |first8=Martin |last9=Silver |first9=Jessica M. |date=2013-07-14 |title=Coastal habitats shield people and property from sea-level rise and storms |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1944 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=913–918 |doi=10.1038/nclimate1944 |bibcode=2013NatCC...3..913A |issn=1758-678X}}

Oyster reef restoration has accelerated in recent decades.{{cite journal |first1=Carlos M. |last1=Duarte |first2=Susana |last2=Agusti |first3=Edward |last3=Barbier |first4=Gregory L. |last4=Britten |first5=Juan Carlos |last5=Castilla |first6=Jean-Pierre |last6=Gattuso |first7=Robinson W. |last7=Fulweiler |first8=Terry P. |last8=Hughes |first9=Nancy |last9=Knowlton |first10=Catherine E. |last10=Lovelock |first11=Heike K. |last11=Lotze |first12=Milica |last12=Predragovic |first13=Elvira |last13=Poloczanska |first14=Callum |last14=Roberts |first15=Boris |last15=Worm |date=1 April 2020 |title=Rebuilding marine life |journal=Nature |volume=580 |issue=7801 |pages=39–51 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03271-2 |pmid=32238939 |s2cid=233279016 |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free |hdl=10754/661654 |hdl-access=free }} Oyster reef restoration projects often place the sanitized shells of dead oysters, concrete, or limestone pieces on a soft bottom to encourage oyster spat settlement. Restoration of intertidal eastern oyster reefs can match natural densities of oysters and mud crabs, and recover oyster stability in about 6 years.{{cite journal |first1=Rachel S. |last1=Smith |first2=Bo |last2=Lusk |first3=Max C.N. |last3=Castorani |date=5 April 2022 |title=Restored oyster reefs match multiple functions of natural reefs within a decade |journal=Conservation Letters |volume=15 |issue=4 |doi=10.1111/conl.12883|s2cid=247990521 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ConL...15E2883S }} Additional benefits to restoring these habitats includes suppressing phytoplankton blooms via increasing filter feeding behavior,{{cite journal |last1=Gedan |first1=Keryn B. |last2=Kellogg |first2=Lisa |last3=Breitburg |first3=Denise L. |date=1 July 2014 |title=Accounting for Multiple Foundation Species in Oyster Reef Restoration Benefits |journal=Restoration Ecology |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=517–524 |doi=10.1111/rec.12107 |bibcode=2014ResEc..22..517G |s2cid=22032465 |issn=1526-100X}} increase nutrient sequestration and denitrification rates,{{cite journal |last1=Kellogg |first1=M. Lisa |last2=Cornwell |first2=Jeffrey C. |last3=Owens |first3=Michael S. |last4=Paynter |first4=Kennedy T. |date=22 April 2013 |title=FEATURE ARTICLE Denitrification and nutrient assimilation on a restored oyster reef |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=480 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.3354/meps10331|doi-access=free }} increase nekton biomass, and potentially increase commercial fishery value.{{cite journal |last1=Humphries |first1=Austin T. |last2=Peyre |first2=Megan K. La |date=25 August 2015 |title=Oyster reef restoration supports increased nekton biomass and potential commercial fishery value |journal=PeerJ |volume=3 |page=e1111 |doi=10.7717/peerj.1111 |pmc=4556142 |pmid=26336635 |doi-access=free }} However, data on previously implemented restoration projects can be difficult to access, hindering future restoration efforts.{{cite journal |last1=La Peyre |first1= Megan |last2=Furlong |first2=Jessica |last3=Brown |first3=Laura A. |last4=Piazza |first4=Bryan P. |last5=Brown |first5=Ken |date=1 March 2014 |title=Oyster reef restoration in the northern Gulf of Mexico: Extent, methods and outcomes |journal=Ocean & Coastal Management |volume=89 |pages=20–28 |doi=10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.12.002|bibcode= 2014OCM....89...20L }}

• Rudists – extinct group of major reef-building bivalves in the Mesozoic Era

{{Reflist|30em}}

• [https://www.natureaustralia.org.au/what-we-do/our-priorities/oceans/ocean-stories/oyster-reef-habitat/ Animation of Reef Development from The Nature Conservatory Australia]
• [https://score.dnr.sc.gov/deepf71b.html South Carolina Oyster Recycling and Enhancement Oyster Biology & Ecology]

Category:Oysters

Category:Reefs