Parables of Jesus#Purpose and motive

{{Expand section|date=May 2021}}

As a translation of the Hebrew word {{langx|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|מָשָׁל}}|mashal|label=none}}, the word parable can also refer to a riddle. At all times in their history the Jews were familiar with teaching by means of parables and a number of parables also exist in the Old Testament.

The use of parables by Jesus was hence a natural teaching method that fit into the tradition of his time.{{sfn|Perkins|2007|p=105}} Tom Wright observes that his parables are similar to the dreams recounted in the Old Testament, which are presented "in search of meanings".Wright, T. (2001), Mark for Everyone, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, page 42 The parables of Jesus have been quoted, taught, and discussed since the very beginnings of Christianity.

Parables are one of the many literary forms in the Bible, but are especially seen in the gospels of the New Testament. Parables are generally considered to be short stories such as the Good Samaritan, and are differentiated from metaphorical statements such as, "You are the salt of the earth." A true parable may be regarded as an extended simile.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|p=}} Adolf Jülicher viewed parables as extended metaphors with a picture part ({{lang|de|Bildhälfte}}), a reality part ({{lang|de|Sachhälfte}}), and a point of comparison (tertium comparationis) between the picture part and the reality part.{{sfn|Jülicher|1888|p=}} For example, the following parable in Luke 7:31–32 illustrates Jülicher's approach to parables:

{{blockquote|To what then will I compare the people of this generation, and what are they like? They are like children sitting in the marketplace and calling to one another: "We played the flute for you, and you did not dance; we wailed, and you did not weep."{{Cite web|title=Luke 7:31–32 NKJV - And the Lord said, "To…|url=http://biblia.com/bible/nkjv/luke/7/31-32|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Biblia}}}}

Although some suggest parables are essentially extended allegories, others emphatically argue the opposite. Dr. Kenneth Boa states that "Parables are extended figures of comparison that often use short stories to teach a truth or answer a question. While the story in a parable is not historical, it is true to life, not a fairy tale. As a form of oral literature, the parable exploits realistic situations but makes effective use of the imagination... Some of the parables [of Christ] were designed to reveal mysteries to those on the inside and to conceal the truth to those on the outside who would not hear."

{{main|Canonical gospels}}

The three synoptic gospels contain the parables of Jesus. There are a growing number of scholars who also find parables in the Gospel of John, such as the little stories of the Good Shepherd (John 10:1–5) or the childbearing woman (John 16:21).{{efn|name=ChildbearingWoman}} Otherwise, John includes allegories but no parables. Several authors such as Barbara Reid, Arland Hultgren or Donald Griggs comment that "parables are noticeably absent from the Gospel of John".{{sfn|Reid|2001|p=3}}{{sfn|Hultgren|2000|p= 2}}{{sfn|Griggs| 2003|p=52}}{{efn|name=NoParablesinJohn}}

William Barry states in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) "There are no parables in St. John's Gospel. In the Synoptics{{nbsp}}[...] we reckon thirty-three in all; but some have raised the number even to sixty, by including proverbial expressions".{{sfn|Barry|1911}} The Gospel of Luke contains both the largest total number of parables (24) and eighteen unique parables; the Gospel of Matthew contains 23 parables of which eleven are unique; and the Gospel of Mark contains eight parables of which two are unique.

In Harmony of the Gospels, Cox and Easley provide a Gospel harmony for the parables based on the following counts: only in Matthew: 11; only in Mark: 2; only in Luke: 18; Matthew and Luke: 4; Matthew, Mark and Luke: 6. They list no parables for the Gospel of John.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2006|p=348}}

Parables attributed to Jesus are also found in other documents apart from the Bible. Some of these overlap those in the canonical gospels and some are not part of the Bible. The non-canonical Gospel of Thomas contains up to fifteen parables, eleven of which have parallels in the four canonical Gospels. The unknown author of the Gospel of Thomas did not have a special word for 'parable', making it difficult to know what they considered a parable.{{sfn|Scott|1989|pp=33–34}}{{efn|name=NumberOfParables}} Those unique to Thomas include the Parable of the Assassin and the Parable of the Empty Jar.

The noncanonical Apocryphon of James also contains three unique parables attributed to Jesus.{{sfn|Koester|2013|p=196–200}} They are known as "The Parable of the Ear of Grain", "The Parable of the Grain of Wheat", and "The Parable of the Date-Palm Shoot".{{sfn|Cameron|2004|pp=8–30}}

The hypothetical Q document is seen as a source for some of the parables in Matthew, Luke, and Thomas.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=339}}

In the Gospel of Matthew (13:10–17) Jesus provides an answer when asked about his use of parables:{{bibleverse|Matthew|13:10–17}}, {{bibleverse|Mark|4:10–12}}, {{bibleverse|Luke|8:9–10}}

{{blockquote|Then his disciples asked him what this parable meant. He said, "To you it has been given to know the secrets of the kingdom of God; but to others I speak in parables, so that 'looking they may not perceive, and listening they may not understand.'"|Luke 8:9–10, New Revised Standard Version{{bibleverse|Luke|8:9–10|NRSV}}}}

While Mark 4:33–34{{Bibleverse|Mark|4:33–34}} and Matthew 13:34–35{{Bibleverse|Matthew|13:34–35}} may suggest that Jesus would only speak to the "crowds" in parables, while in private explaining everything to his disciples, some modern scholars do not support the private explanations argument and surmise that Jesus used parables as a teaching method.{{sfn|Harris|2003|p=}} Dwight Pentecost suggests that given that Jesus often preached to a mixed audience of believers and non-believers, he used parables to reveal the truth to some, but hide it from others.{{sfn|Pentecost|1998|p=10}}

The Anglican bishop of Montreal, Ashton Oxenden, suggests that Jesus constructed his parables based on his divine knowledge of how man can be taught:

{{blockquote|

This was a mode of teaching, which our blessed Lord seemed to take special delight in employing. And we may be quite sure, that as "He knew what was in man" better than we know, He would not have taught by Parables, if He had not felt that this was the kind of teaching best suited to our wants.

|source={{harvnb|Oxenden|1864|p=1}} }}

In the 19th century, Lisco and Fairbairn stated that in the parables of Jesus, "the image borrowed from the visible world is accompanied by a truth from the invisible (spiritual) world" and that the parables of Jesus are not "mere similitudes which serve the purpose of illustration, but are internal analogies where nature becomes a witness for the spiritual world".{{sfn|Lisco|1846|pp=9-10}}

Similarly, in the 20th century, calling a parable "an earthly story with a heavenly meaning",{{sfn|Barclay|1999|p=12}} William Barclay states that the parables of Jesus use familiar examples to lead men's minds towards heavenly concepts. He suggests that Jesus did not form his parables merely as analogies but based on an "inward affinity between the natural and the spiritual order."{{sfn|Barclay|1999|p=12}}

A number of parables that are adjacent in one or more gospels have similar themes. The parable of the Leaven follows the parable of the Mustard Seed in Matthew and Luke, and shares the theme of the Kingdom of Heaven growing from small beginnings.{{sfn|Witherington|1987|pp=40–41}} The parable of the Hidden Treasure and parable of the Pearl form a pair illustrating the great value of the Kingdom of Heaven, and the need for action in attaining it.{{sfn|Nolland|2005|pp=565–566}}

The parables of the Lost Sheep, Lost Coin, and Lost (Prodigal) Son form a trio in Luke dealing with loss and redemption.{{sfn|Longenecker|2000|p=201–204}}

The parable of the Faithful Servant and parable of the Ten Virgins, adjacent in Matthew, involve waiting for a bridegroom, and have an eschatological theme of being prepared for the day of reckoning.{{sfn|France|1985|pp=348–352}} The parable of the Tares{{sfn|France|1985|p=225}} the parable of the Rich Fool,{{sfn|Purdy|1985|pp=41-43}} the parable of the budding fig tree,{{sfn|Scott|1989|pp=338–340}} and the parable of the barren fig tree{{sfn|Jones|1999|pp=123–133}} also have eschatological themes.

Other parables stand alone, such as the parable of the unforgiving servant, dealing with forgiveness;{{sfn|Keener|1999|p=456}} the parable of the Good Samaritan, dealing with practical love;{{sfn|Green|1997|p=432}} and the parable of the Friend at Night, dealing with persistence in prayer.{{sfn|Marshall|1978|pp=462–465}}

File:Wise and foolish.jpg on a stained glass window in Scots' Church, Melbourne]]

Of the thirty or so parables in the canonical Gospels, four were shown in medieval art almost to the exclusion of the others, but not mixed in with the narrative scenes of the Life of Christ. These were: the Ten Virgins, the Rich man and Lazarus, the Prodigal Son and the Good Samaritan.{{sfn|Mâle|1972|p=195}} Artists famous for depicting parables include Martin Schongauer, Pieter Bruegel the Elder and Albrecht Dürer. The Workers in the Vineyard also appears in Early Medieval works. From the Renaissance, the number of parables depicted increased slightly, and the Prodigal Son became a clear favorite, appearing in various scenes, with the Good Samaritan also being popular. Albrecht Dürer made a famous engraving of the Prodigal Son among the pigs (1496), a popular subject in the Northern Renaissance, and Rembrandt depicted the story several times, although at least one of his works, The Prodigal Son in the Tavern, a portrait of himself as the Son revelling with his wife, is like many artists' depictions, a way of dignifying a genre tavern scene. His late The Return of the Prodigal Son (Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg) is one of his most popular works. In 1857, the Brothers Dalziel commissioned John Everett Millais to illustrate the parables, and his work was published in 1864 in London.{{sfn|Millais|1975|p=}}

As well as being depicted in art and discussed in prose, a number of parables form the inspiration for religious poetry and hymns. For example, the hymn "The Ninety and Nine" by Elizabeth C. Clephane (1868) is inspired by the parable of the Lost Sheep:

{{poemquote|

There were ninety and nine that safely lay

In the shelter of the fold.

But one was out on the hills away,

Far off from the gates of gold.

Away on the mountains wild and bare.

Away from the tender Shepherd's care.

Away from the tender Shepherd's care.

|{{harvnb|Clephane|1910}} }}

Similarly, "My Hope Is Built" (Edward Mote, {{Circa|1834}}) is inspired by the parable of the Wise and the Foolish Builders, and "How Kind the Good Samaritan" (John Newton, {{Circa|1779}}) is inspired by the parable of the Good Samaritan.

A sample gospel harmony for the parables based on the list of key episodes in the Canonical Gospels is presented in the table below. For the sake of consistency, this table is automatically sub-selected from the main harmony table in the Gospel harmony article, based on the list of key episodes in the Canonical Gospels. Usually, no parables are associated with the Gospel of John, just allegories.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2006|p=348}}

A number of parables have parallels in non-canonical gospels, the Didache, and the letters of Apostolic Fathers. However, given that the non-canonical gospels generally have no time sequence, this table is not a gospel harmony.

• Chronology of Jesus
• Gospel harmony
• Jesus in Christianity
• Life of Jesus in the New Testament
• Ministry of Jesus
• Miracles of Jesus
• The Tares

{{notelist|refs=

{{efn|name=NoParablesinJohn| {{harvnb|Barry|1911}} states "There are no parables in St. John's Gospel", and {{harvnb|von Hügel|1911}} states "Here Jesus' teaching contains no parables and but three allegories, the Synoptists present it as parabolic through and through".}}

{{efn|name=NumberOfParables|The actual number of parables in Thomas is fluid. John Dominic Crossan counts 15, Ron Cameron 14, and Bernard Brandon Scott 13. See also {{harvnb|Crossan|1992|p=}} and {{harvnb|Cameron|1986|p=}} }}

{{efn|name=ChildbearingWoman|See, for instance, {{harvnb|Zimmermann|2015|pp=333–360}}; see the German-For-Neutestamentler-[https://germanforneutestamentler.com/2016/04/25/rediscovering-parables-in-john-with-ruben-zimmermann/ BLOG] [http://www.christinyou.net/pages/vinebranch.html The Vine and the Branches by David Tryon], as others have throughout history including {{harvnb|Calvin|1847|p=106}} }}

}}

{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFBacher1905}}

{{Reflist|refs=

{{cite web|last1= Kulikovsky|first1=Andrew S.|title= The Interpretation of Parables, Allegories and Types |url= http://hermeneutics.kulikovskyonline.net/hermeneutics/parab.htm |website=Biblical Hermeneutics|access-date=25 September 2015}}

{{cite web|last1= Boa |first1=Kenneth|title=Literary Forms in the Bible|url= https://bible.org/seriespage/iv-literary-forms-bible|website=Bible |access-date=25 September 2015}}

}}

{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}

• {{cite Jewish Encyclopedia |last1=Bacher|first1=William |title=Parable |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11898-parable |volume=9 |pages=512–514}}
• {{cite book|last=Barclay|first=William |author-link=William Barclay (theologian)|title=The Parables of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s-vdxaBmtTsC|year=1999|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-25828-3}}
• {{cite CE1913|wstitle=Parables|first=William |last=Barry|volume=11}}
• {{cite book|last=Blomberg|first=Craig L. |title=Interpreting the Parables|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTtbVUIDesAC|year=2009|publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0-8308-7572-6}}
• {{cite book|last=Calvin|first=Jean |author-link=John Calvin|title=Commentary on a Gospel According to John|url =https://archive.org/details/commentariesonfo30calv/page/106/mode/2up?q=true+vine|year=1847|publisher=Calvin Translation Society|location=Edinburgh|translator=Rev. William Pringle|volume=2}}
• {{cite book|last1=Cox|first1=Steven L. |last2=Easley|first2=Kendell H. |title=Harmony of the Gospels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjmwuFUksOQC|year=2006|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|location=Nashville|isbn=978-0-8054-9444-0}}
• {{citation|last=Cameron|first= Ron |date=1986|title=Parable and Interpretation in the Gospel of Thomas|work= Forum 2/2.}}
• {{cite book|last=Cameron|first=Ron |title=Sayings Traditions in the Apocryphon of James|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9vZMPwAACAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01789-4}}
• {{citation|first=Elizabeth Cecilia Douglas|last= Clephane|date=1910|title=There Were Ninety and Nine|url=https://archive.org/details/CSM_00024/page/n1/mode/2up|location=Toronto|publisher=Anglo-Canadian Music Publishers' Association}}
• {{cite book|last=Crossan|first=John Dominic |author-link=John Dominic Crossan|title=In Parables: The Challenge of the Historical Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WnFPAQAAIAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Polebridge Press|isbn=978-0-944344-22-4}}
• {{cite book|last=France|first=R. T. |title=The Gospel According to Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&pg=PA349|year=1985|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0063-3}}
• {{cite book|last1=Funk|first1=Robert Walter |last2=Scott|first2=Bernard Brandon |last3=Butts|first3=James R. |title=The Parables of Jesus: Red Letter Edition : a Report of the Jesus Seminar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfsQAQAAIAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Polebridge Press|isbn=978-0-944344-07-1}}
• {{cite book|last=Green|first=Joel B. |author-link=Joel B. Green|title=The Gospel of Luke|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC&pg=PA430|year=1997|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2315-1}}
• {{cite book|last=Griggs|first=Donald L. |title=The Bible from Scratch: The New Testament for Beginners|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TUAykz2hS10C&pg=PA52|year=2003|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22577-3}}
• {{cite book|last=Harris|first=Stephen L. |title=Understanding the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13MbAQAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-7674-2916-0}}
• {{cite book|last=Hultgren|first=Arland J. |title=The Parables of Jesus: A Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2UvmRVLF18C&pg=PA2|year=2000|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-6077-4}}
• {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Peter Rhea |title=Studying the Parables of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNQdaOREo6sC&pg=PA294|year=1999|publisher=Smyth & Helwys |isbn=978-1-57312-167-5}}
• {{cite book|last=Jülicher|first=Adolf |author-link=Adolf Jülicher|title=Die Gleichnisreden Jesu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxpWAAAAMAAJ|year=1888|publisher=J.C.B. Mohr (P. Siebeck)}}
• {{cite book|last=Keener|first=Craig S. |title=A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sWzhEdBZOp4C&pg=PA456|year=1999|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3821-6}}
• {{cite book|last=Koester|first=Helmut |title=Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VI0vnAEACAAJ|date=April 2013|publisher=SCM Press|isbn=978-0-334-04961-6}}
• {{cite book|last=Lisco|first=Friedrich Gustav |title=The Parables of Jesus: Explained and Illustrated|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lgw3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA9|year=1846|publisher=Massachusetts Sabbath School Society}}
• {{cite book|last=Longenecker|first=Richard N. |title=The Challenge of Jesus' Parables|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JojVvncUgk0C|year=2000|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-4638-9}}
• {{cite book|last=Mâle|first=Emile |author-link=Emile Mâle|title=The Gothic Image: Religious Art In France Of The Thirteenth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/gothicimagerelig0000male/page/194/mode/2up?q=good+samaritan|year=1972|publisher=Harper & Row|location=New York|isbn=9780064300322}}
• {{cite book|last=Marshall|first=I . Howard |author-link=I. Howard Marshall|title=The Gospel of Luke|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u20lAQAAIAAJ|year=1978|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3512-3}}
• {{cite book|title=The parables of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ|first=John Everett|last=Millais|date=1975|orig-year=1864|publisher=Dover Publications|location=New York |isbn=9780486204949 |url=https://archive.org/details/parablesofourlor0000unse/mode/2up}}
• {{cite book|last=Nolland|first=John |title=The Gospel of Matthew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cL_kpdUE-oC&pg=PA1006|year=2005|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2389-2}}
• {{cite book|last=Osborn|first=Eric |title=The Emergence of Christian Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hyALXgekvxUC&pg=PA98|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43078-4}}
• {{cite book|last=Oxenden|first=Ashton |author-link=Ashton Oxenden|title=The Parables of Our Lord|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bUCAAAAQAAJ|year=1864|publisher=William Macintosh}}
• {{cite book|last=Pentecost|first=J. Dwight |author-link=J. Dwight Pentecost|title=The Parables of Jesus: Lessons in Life from the Master Teacher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k_VVxjLkN2UC&pg=PA10|year=1998|publisher=Kregel |isbn=978-0-8254-9715-5}}
• {{cite book|last=Perkins|first=Pheme |title=Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCWawQEACAAJ|date= 2007|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-1770-9}}
• {{cite book|last=Purdy|first=John C. |title=Parables at Work|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxf4h-HJU9AC&pg=PA41|year=1985|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-24640-2}}
• {{cite book|last=Reid|first=Barbara E. |title=Parables for Preachers: The Gospel of Matthew : Year A|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVV1KiFKmmkC&pg=PA3|date= 2001|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-2550-7}}
• {{cite book|last=Scott|first=Bernard Brandon |title=Hear Then the Parable: A Commentary on the Parables of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtphytF1ePQC&pg=PA338|year=1989|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-1-4514-0418-0}}
• {{cite book|last1=Theissen|first1=Gerd |last2=Merz|first2=Annette |title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MIglAQAAIAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-0-8006-3123-9}}
• {{cite book|last=Throckmorton|first=Burton Hamilton |title=Gospel Parallels: A Comparison of the Synoptic Gospels : with Alternative Readings from the Manuscripts and Noncanonical Parallels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AldMcgAACAAJ|year=1992|publisher=T. Nelson|isbn=978-0-8407-7484-2}}
• {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=John, Gospel of St |volume=15 |pages=452–458 |first=Friedrich |last=von Hügel}}
• {{cite book|last=Witherington|first=Ben |title=Women in the Ministry of Jesus: A Study of Jesus' Attitudes to Women and Their Roles as Reflected in His Earthly Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xGePuntVBhgC&pg=PA43|year=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-34781-5}}
• {{cite book|last=Zimmermann|first=Ruben |title=Puzzling the Parables of Jesus: Methods and Interpretation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cs5mrgEACAAJ|year=2015|publisher=Fortress |isbn=978-0-8006-9975-8}}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin}}

• C. H. Dodd, The Parables of the Kingdom {{ISBN|0-02330460-X}}.
• Gowler, David B., 2000. What Are They Saying About the Parables? Mahweh, NJ: Paulist Press. {{ISBN|978-0809139620}}
• Joachim Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus {{ISBN|0-33402917-1}}.
• Schottroff, Luise, 2006. The parables of Jesus {{ISBN|0-8006-3699-6}}
• Sumner, John Bird, 1850. The parables of our lord and saviour Jesus Christ C. Cox Publishers, London.
• Trinder, William Martin, 1816. Sermons on the parables of Jesus Christ Baldwin, Cradock and Joy Publishers, London.

{{refend}}

{{Commons category|Parables of Jesus Christ}}

• [http://www.bcbsr.com/survey/jpbl.html Another list], slightly different and only of the synoptic Gospels
• [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html PBS: Frontline: From Jesus to Christ: The Parables]

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{{Parables of Jesus|state=expanded}}

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Category:Doctrines and teachings of Jesus