Particulate inorganic carbon

{{carbon cycle|Forms}}

Carbon compounds can be distinguished as either organic or inorganic, and dissolved or particulate, depending on their composition. Organic carbon forms the backbone of key component of organic compounds such as – proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Inorganic carbon is found primarily in simple compounds such as carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate (CO₂, H₂CO₃, HCO₃⁻, CO₃²⁻ respectively).

Marine carbon is further separated into particulate and dissolved phases. These pools are operationally defined by physical separation – dissolved carbon passes through a 0.2 μm filter, and particulate carbon does not.

There are two main types of inorganic carbon that are found in the oceans. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is made up of bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), carbonate (CO₃²⁻) and carbon dioxide (including both dissolved CO₂ and carbonic acid H₂CO₃). DIC can be converted to particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) through precipitation of CaCO₃ (biologically or abiotically). DIC can also be converted to particulate organic carbon (POC) through photosynthesis and chemoautotrophy (i.e. primary production). DIC increases with depth as organic carbon particles sink and are respired. Free oxygen decreases as DIC increases because oxygen is consumed during aerobic respiration.

Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) is the other form of inorganic carbon found in the ocean. Most PIC is the CaCO₃ that makes up shells of various marine organisms, but can also form in whiting events. Marine fish also excrete calcium carbonate during osmoregulation.{{Cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=R. W.|last2=Millero|first2=F. J.|last3=Taylor|first3=J. R.|last4=Walsh|first4=P. J.|last5=Christensen|first5=V.|last6=Jennings|first6=S.|last7=Grosell|first7=M.|date=2009-01-16|title=Contribution of Fish to the Marine Inorganic Carbon Cycle|journal=Science|language=en|volume=323|issue=5912|pages=359–362|doi=10.1126/science.1157972|issn=0036-8075|pmid=19150840|bibcode=2009Sci...323..359W|s2cid=36321414}}

Some of the inorganic carbon species in the ocean, such as bicarbonate and carbonate, are major contributors to alkalinity, a natural ocean buffer that prevents drastic changes in acidity (or pH). The marine carbon cycle also affects the reaction and dissolution rates of some chemical compounds, regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and Earth's temperature.{{Cite book|title=Chemical Oceanography and the Marine Carbon Cycle|last=Emerson|first=Steven|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-83313-4|location=United Kingdom}}

File:Marine carbon cycle.png

File:Natural particle size distributions in the ocean.webp Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].]]

File:Particulate inorganic carbon budget for Hudson Bay.jpg Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]. {{space|20}} Units are Tg C y⁻¹]]

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Particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) usually takes the form of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), and plays a key part in the ocean carbon cycle.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1002/2017JC013146|title = Estimating Particulate Inorganic Carbon Concentrations of the Global Ocean from Ocean Color Measurements Using a Reflectance Difference Approach|year = 2017|last1 = Mitchell|first1 = C.|last2 = Hu|first2 = C.|last3 = Bowler|first3 = B.|last4 = Drapeau|first4 = D.|last5 = Balch|first5 = W. M.|journal = Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans|volume = 122|issue = 11|pages = 8707–8720|bibcode = 2017JGRC..122.8707M|doi-access = free}} This biologically fixed carbon is used as a protective coating for many planktonic species (coccolithophores, foraminifera) as well as larger marine organisms (mollusk shells). Calcium carbonate is also excreted at high rates during osmoregulation by fish, and can form in whiting events.{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=R. W. |last2=Millero |first2=F. J. |last3=Taylor |first3=J. R. |last4=Walsh |first4=P. J. |last5=Christensen |first5=V. |last6=Jennings |first6=S. |last7=Grosell |first7=M. |title=Contribution of Fish to the Marine Inorganic Carbon Cycle |journal=Science |date=16 January 2009 |volume=323 |issue=5912 |pages=359–362 |doi=10.1126/science.1157972|pmid=19150840 |bibcode=2009Sci...323..359W |s2cid=36321414 }} While this form of carbon is not directly taken from the atmospheric budget, it is formed from dissolved forms of carbonate which are in equilibrium with CO₂ and then responsible for removing this carbon via sequestration.Pilson MEQ. 2012. An Introduction to the Chemistry of the Sea. Cambridge University Press, pp.

:CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ → H⁺ + HCO₃⁻

:Ca²⁺ + 2HCO₃⁻ → CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O

While this process does manage to fix a large amount of carbon, two units of alkalinity are sequestered for every unit of sequestered carbon.{{cite book |title=The Biological Pump in the Past |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry, 2nd Edition |year=2014 |last1=Hain |first1=M.P. |last2=Sigman |first2=D.M. |last3=Haug |first3=G.H. |volume=8 |pages=485–517 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00618-5 |url=http://www.mathis-hain.net/resources/Hain_et_al_2014_ToG.pdf |access-date=2015-06-01 |isbn=9780080983004 |archive-date=11 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211072318/http://www.mathis-hain.net/resources/Hain_et_al_2014_ToG.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite journal|last1=Hain|first1=M.P.|last2=Sigman|first2=D.M.|last3=Haug|first3=G.H.|year=2010|title=Carbon dioxide effects of Antarctic stratification, North Atlantic Intermediate Water formation, and subantarctic nutrient drawdown during the last ice age: Diagnosis and synthesis in a geochemical box model|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|volume=24|issue=4|pages=1–19|doi=10.1029/2010GB003790|bibcode=2010GBioC..24.4023H|doi-access=free}} The formation and sinking of CaCO₃ therefore drives a surface to deep alkalinity gradient which serves to raise the pH of surface waters, shifting the speciation of dissolved carbon to raise the partial pressure of dissolved CO₂ in surface waters, which actually raises atmospheric levels. In addition, the burial of CaCO₃ in sediments serves to lower overall oceanic alkalinity, tending to raise pH and thereby atmospheric CO₂ levels if not counterbalanced by the new input of alkalinity from weathering.Sigman DM & GH Haug. 2006. The biological pump in the past. In: Treatise on Geochemistry; vol. 6, (ed.). Pergamon Press, pp. 491-528 The portion of carbon that is permanently buried at the sea floor becomes part of the geologic record. Calcium carbonate often forms remarkable deposits that can then be raised onto land through tectonic motion as in the case with the White Cliffs of Dover in Southern England. These cliffs are made almost entirely of the plates of buried coccolithophores.Webb, Paul (2019) Introduction to Oceanography, [https://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography/chapter/chapter-12-ocean-sediments/ Chapter 12: Ocean Sediments], page 273–297, Rebus Community. Updated 2020.

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File:Annual mean sea surface dissolved inorganic carbon for the 1990s (GLODAP).png]]

The carbonate pump, sometimes called the carbonate counter pump, starts with marine organisms at the ocean's surface producing particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) in the form of calcium carbonate (calcite or aragonite, CaCO₃). This CaCO₃ is what forms hard body parts like shells. The formation of these shells increases atmospheric CO₂ due to the production of CaCO₃ in the following reaction with simplified stoichiometry:{{Cite web|url=https://aslo.org/page/limnology-%26-oceanography-e-books|title=ASLO : Limnology & Oceanography: e-Books|website=aslo.org|access-date=2017-11-28|archive-date=7 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207084449/https://aslo.org/page/limnology-%26-oceanography-e-books|url-status=dead}}{{NumBlk|:|{{chem2|Ca2+ + 2 HCO3- <-> CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O}}{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=S. V.|last2=Key|first2=G. S.|date=1975-05-01|title=Carbon dioxide and metabolism in marine environments1|journal=Limnology and Oceanography|language=en|volume=20|issue=3|pages=493–495|doi=10.4319/lo.1975.20.3.0493|issn=1939-5590|bibcode=1975LimOc..20..493S|doi-access=free}}|{{EquationRef|4}}}}Coccolithophores, a nearly ubiquitous group of phytoplankton that produce shells of calcium carbonate, are the dominant contributors to the carbonate pump. Due to their abundance, coccolithophores have significant implications on carbonate chemistry, in the surface waters they inhabit and in the ocean below: they provide a large mechanism for the downward transport of CaCO₃.{{Cite book|title=Coccolithophores|last1=Rost|first1=Björn|last2=Riebesell|first2=Ulf|chapter=Coccolithophores and the biological pump: Responses to environmental changes |date=2004|publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg|isbn=9783642060168|pages=99–125|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-06278-4_5|citeseerx = 10.1.1.455.2864}} The air-sea CO₂ flux induced by a marine biological community can be determined by the rain ratio - the proportion of carbon from calcium carbonate compared to that from organic carbon in particulate matter sinking to the ocean floor, (PIC/POC). The carbonate pump acts as a negative feedback on CO₂ taken into the ocean by the solubility pump. It occurs with lesser magnitude than the solubility pump.

The carbonate pump is sometimes referred to as the "hard tissue" component of the biological pump.{{cite journal |last1=Hain |first1=M.P. |last2=Sigman |first2=D.M. |last3=Haug |first3=G.H |title=The Biological Pump in the Past |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |date=2014 |volume=8 |pages=485–517|doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00618-5 |isbn=9780080983004 }} Some surface marine organisms, like coccolithophores, produce hard structures out of calcium carbonate, a form of particulate inorganic carbon, by fixing bicarbonate.{{cite book |last1=Rost |first1=Bjorn |last2=Reibessel |first2=Ulf |title=Coccolithophores and the biological pump: responses to environmental changes |date=2004 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-642-06016-8}} This fixation of DIC is an important part of the oceanic carbon cycle.

:Ca²⁺ + 2 HCO₃⁻ → CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O

While the biological carbon pump fixes inorganic carbon (CO₂) into particulate organic carbon in the form of sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆), the carbonate pump fixes inorganic bicarbonate and causes a net release of CO₂. In this way, the carbonate pump could be termed the carbonate counter pump. It works counter to the biological pump by counteracting the CO₂ flux from the biological pump.Zeebe, R.E., 2016. [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016AGUOS.B23A..08Z/abstract "The calcium carbonate counter pump: Fundamentals, evolution through time, and future feedbacks"]. American Geophysical Union, pp.B23A-08.

File:CalciteAragonite.jpg]]

An aragonite sea contains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic calcium carbonate precipitates. The chemical conditions of the seawater must be notably high in magnesium content relative to calcium (high Mg/Ca ratio) for an aragonite sea to form. This is in contrast to a calcite sea in which seawater low in magnesium content relative to calcium (low Mg/Ca ratio) favors the formation of low-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate.

The Early Paleozoic and the Middle to Late Mesozoic oceans were predominantly calcite seas, whereas the Middle Paleozoic through the Early Mesozoic and the Cenozoic (including today) are characterized by aragonite seas.{{harvnb|Wilkinson|Owen|Carroll|1985}}{{harvnb|Wilkinson|Given|1986}}{{harvnb|Morse|Mackenzie|1990}}{{harvnb|Hardie|1996}}{{harvnb|Lowenstein|Timofeeff|Brennan|Hardie|2001}}{{harvnb|Hardie|2003}}{{harvnb|Palmer|Wilson|2004}}{{Cite journal|last=Ries, J.|date=2010|title=Geological and experimental evidence for secular variation in seawater Mg/Ca (calcite-aragonite seas) and its effects on marine biological calcification|journal=Biogeosciences|volume=7|issue=9|pages=2795–2849|bibcode=2010BGeo....7.2795R|doi=10.5194/bg-7-2795-2010|doi-access=free}}

Aragonite seas occur due to several factors, the most obvious of these is a high seawater Mg/Ca ratio (Mg/Ca > 2), which occurs during intervals of slow seafloor spreading. However, the sea level, temperature, and calcium carbonate saturation state of the surrounding system also determine which polymorph of calcium carbonate (aragonite, low-magnesium calcite, high-magnesium calcite) will form.{{harvnb|Adabi|2004}}{{Cite journal|last=Ries, J.|date=2011|title=Skeletal mineralogy in a high-CO2 world|journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology|volume=403|issue=1–2|pages=54–64|doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2011.04.006}}

Likewise, the occurrence of calcite seas is controlled by the same suite of factors controlling aragonite seas, with the most obvious being a low seawater Mg/Ca ratio (Mg/Ca < 2), which occurs during intervals of rapid seafloor spreading.

File:Lake Ontario Whiting NASA Satellite Image.jpg

{{see also|Whiting event}}

A whiting event is a phenomenon that occurs when a suspended cloud of fine-grained calcium carbonate precipitates in water bodies, typically during summer months, as a result of photosynthetic microbiological activity or sediment disturbance.{{Cite journal|last1=Larson|first1=Erik B.|last2=Mylroie|first2=John E.|date=2014|title=A review of whiting formation in the Bahamas and new models|journal=Carbonates and Evaporites|volume=29|issue=4|pages=337–347|doi=10.1007/s13146-014-0212-7|bibcode=2014CarEv..29..337L |s2cid=128695792|issn=0891-2556}} The phenomenon gets its name from the white, chalky color it imbues to the water. These events have been shown to occur in temperate waters as well as tropical ones, and they can span for hundreds of meters.{{Cite journal|last1=Sondi|first1=Ivan|last2=Juračić|first2=Mladen|date=2010|title=Whiting events and the formation of aragonite in Mediterranean Karstic Marine Lakes: new evidence on its biologically induced inorganic origin|journal=Sedimentology|volume=57|issue=1|pages=85–95|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3091.2009.01090.x|bibcode=2010Sedim..57...85S|s2cid=129052529 |issn=1365-3091|doi-access=free}} They can also occur in both marine and freshwater environments.{{Cite journal|last1=Long|first1=Jacqueline S.|last2=Hu|first2=Chuanmin|last3=Robbins|first3=Lisa L.|last4=Byrne|first4=Robert H.|last5=Paul|first5=John H.|last6=Wolny|first6=Jennifer L.|date=2017|title=Optical and biochemical properties of a southwest Florida whiting event|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|volume=196|pages=258–268|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2017.07.017|bibcode=2017ECSS..196..258L|issn=0272-7714|doi-access=free}} The origin of whiting events is debated among the scientific community, and it is unclear if there is a single, specific cause. Generally, they are thought to result from either bottom sediment re-suspension or by increased activity of certain microscopic life such as phytoplankton.{{cite journal |doi=10.4319/lo.1997.42.1.0133 |title=Whiting events: Biogenic origin due to the photosynthetic activity of cyanobacterial picoplankton |date=1997 |last1=Thompson |first1=Joel B. |last2=Schultze-Lam |first2=Susanne |last3=Beveridge |first3=Terrance J. |last4=Des Marais |first4=David J. |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |volume=42 |pages=133–41 |pmid=11541205 |issue=1|bibcode=1997LimOc..42..133S |s2cid=139114 |doi-access=free }}{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=1768|title=Whiting in Lake Michigan|date=18 September 2001|publisher=NASA Earth Observatory}}{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=81952|title=Whiting Event, Lake Ontario|date=2 September 2013|publisher=NASA Earth Observatory}} Because whiting events affect aquatic chemistry, physical properties, and carbon cycling, studying the mechanisms behind them holds scientific relevance in various ways.{{Cite journal|last1=Dittrich|first1=Maria|last2=Obst|first2=Martin|date=2004|title=Are Picoplankton Responsible for Calcite Precipitation in Lakes?|journal=Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment|volume=33|issue=8|pages=559–564|doi=10.1579/0044-7447-33.8.559|pmid=15666689|bibcode=2004Ambio..33..559D |s2cid=45359827|issn=0044-7447}}{{Cite journal|last1=Shinn|first1=Eugene A.|last2=St.C. Kendall|first2=Christopher G.|date=2011-12-01|editor-last=Day-Stirrat|editor-first=Ruarri|editor2-last=Janson|editor2-first=Xavier|editor3-last=Wright|editor3-first=Wayne|title=Back to the Future|journal=The Sedimentary Record|volume=9|issue=4|pages=4–9|doi=10.2110/sedred.2011.4.4|doi-access=free}}{{Cite book|title=AAPG Studies in Geology|last1=Yates|first1=K.K|last2=Robbins|first2=L.L.|publisher=American Association of Petroleum Geologists|year=2001|isbn=|location=Tulsa, Ok|pages=267–283|chapter=Microbial Lime-Mud Production and Its Relation to Climate Change}}{{Cite journal|last1=Effler|first1=Steven W.|last2=Perkins|first2=Mary Gail|last3=Greer|first3=Harry|last4=Johnson|first4=David L.|date=1987|title=Effect of "whiting" on optical properties and turbidity in Owasco Lake, New York|journal=Journal of the American Water Resources Association|volume=23|issue=2|pages=189–196|doi=10.1111/j.1752-1688.1987.tb00796.x|bibcode=1987JAWRA..23..189E|issn=1093-474X}}

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File:Great Calcite Belt of the Southern Ocean.webm}}]]

{{main|Great Calcite Belt}}

{{plankton sidebar|related}}

The Great Calcite Belt (GCB) of the Southern Ocean is a region of elevated summertime upper ocean calcite concentration derived from coccolithophores, despite the region being known for its diatom predominance. The overlap of two major phytoplankton groups, coccolithophores and diatoms, in the dynamic frontal systems characteristic of this region provides an ideal setting to study environmental

influences on the distribution of different species within these taxonomic groups.

The Great Calcite Belt, defined as an elevated particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) feature occurring alongside seasonally elevated chlorophyll a in austral spring and summer in the Southern Ocean,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2004JC002560|title = Calcium carbonate measurements in the surface global ocean based on Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer data|year = 2005|last1 = Balch|first1 = W. M.|last2 = Gordon|first2 = Howard R.|last3 = Bowler|first3 = B. C.|last4 = Drapeau|first4 = D. T.|last5 = Booth|first5 = E. S.|journal = Journal of Geophysical Research|volume = 110|issue = C7|pages = C07001|bibcode = 2005JGRC..110.7001B|doi-access = free}} plays an important role in climate fluctuations,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/30455|title = Simulated response of the ocean carbon cycle to anthropogenic climate warming|year = 1998|last1 = Sarmiento|first1 = Jorge L.|last2 = Hughes|first2 = Tertia M. C.|last3 = Stouffer|first3 = Ronald J.|last4 = Manabe|first4 = Syukuro|journal = Nature|volume = 393|issue = 6682|pages = 245–249|bibcode = 1998Natur.393..245S|s2cid = 4317429}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2003GB002134|title = Response of ocean ecosystems to climate warming|year = 2004|last1 = Sarmiento|first1 = J. L.|last2 = Slater|first2 = R.|last3 = Barber|first3 = R.|last4 = Bopp|first4 = L.|last5 = Doney|first5 = S. C.|last6 = Hirst|first6 = A. C.|last7 = Kleypas|first7 = J.|last8 = Matear|first8 = R.|last9 = Mikolajewicz|first9 = U.|last10 = Monfray|first10 = P.|last11 = Soldatov|first11 = V.|last12 = Spall|first12 = S. A.|last13 = Stouffer|first13 = R.|journal = Global Biogeochemical Cycles|volume = 18|issue = 3|pages = n/a|bibcode = 2004GBioC..18.3003S|hdl = 1912/3392| s2cid=15482539 | url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03129787/file/2003GB002134.pdf |hdl-access = free}} accounting for over 60% of the Southern Ocean area (30–60° S).{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2011JC006941|title = The contribution of coccolithophores to the optical and inorganic carbon budgets during the Southern Ocean Gas Exchange Experiment: New evidence in support of the "Great Calcite Belt" hypothesis|year = 2011|last1 = Balch|first1 = W. M.|last2 = Drapeau|first2 = D. T.|last3 = Bowler|first3 = B. C.|last4 = Lyczskowski|first4 = E.|last5 = Booth|first5 = E. S.|last6 = Alley|first6 = D.|journal = Journal of Geophysical Research|volume = 116|issue = C4|pages = C00F06|bibcode = 2011JGRC..116.0F06B}} The region between 30° and 50° S has the highest uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO₂) alongside the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1126/science.1097403|title = The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2|year = 2004|last1 = Sabine|first1 = C. L.|last2 = Feely|first2 = R. A.|last3 = Gruber|first3 = N.|last4 = Key|first4 = R. M.|last5 = Lee|first5 = K.|last6 = Bullister|first6 = J. L.|last7 = Wanninkhof|first7 = R.|last8 = Wong|first8 = C. S.|last9 = Wallace|first9 = D. W.|last10 = Tilbrook|first10 = B.|last11 = Millero|first11 = F. J.|last12 = Peng|first12 = T. H.|last13 = Kozyr|first13 = A.|last14 = Ono|first14 = T.|last15 = Rios|first15 = A. F.|journal = Science|volume = 305|issue = 5682|pages = 367–371|pmid = 15256665|bibcode = 2004Sci...305..367S| hdl=10261/52596 |s2cid = 5607281|url = http://oceanrep.geomar.de/46251/1/1193.full.pdf}} Knowledge of the impact of interacting environmental influences on phytoplankton distribution in the Southern Ocean is limited. For example, more understanding is needed of how light and iron availability or temperature and pH interact to control phytoplankton biogeography.{{cite journal |doi = 10.4319/lo.2010.55.3.1353|title = Environmental control of open-ocean phytoplankton groups: Now and in the future|year = 2010|last1 = Boyd|first1 = Philip W.|last2 = Strzepek|first2 = Robert|last3 = Fu|first3 = Feixue|last4 = Hutchins|first4 = David A.|journal = Limnology and Oceanography|volume = 55|issue = 3|pages = 1353–1376|bibcode = 2010LimOc..55.1353B|doi-access = free}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2011JC007726|title = Mapping phytoplankton iron utilization: Insights into Southern Ocean supply mechanisms|year = 2012|last1 = Boyd|first1 = P. W.|last2 = Arrigo|first2 = K. R.|last3 = Strzepek|first3 = R.|last4 = Van Dijken|first4 = G. L.|journal = Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans|volume = 117|issue = C6|pages = n/a|bibcode = 2012JGRC..117.6009B|doi-access = free}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.5194/bg-13-5917-2016|title = Environmental drivers of coccolithophore abundance and calcification across Drake Passage (Southern Ocean)|year = 2016|last1 = Charalampopoulou|first1 = Anastasia|last2 = Poulton|first2 = Alex J.|last3 = Bakker|first3 = Dorothee C. E.|last4 = Lucas|first4 = Mike I.|last5 = Stinchcombe|first5 = Mark C.|last6 = Tyrrell|first6 = Toby|journal = Biogeosciences|volume = 13|issue = 21|pages = 5917–5935|bibcode = 2016BGeo...13.5917C|doi-access = free|hdl = 11427/34237|hdl-access = free}} Hence, if model parameterizations are to improve to provide accurate predictions of biogeochemical change, a multivariate understanding of the full suite of environmental drivers is required.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00066-1|title = Does planktonic community structure determine downward particulate organic carbon flux in different oceanic provinces?|year = 1999|last1 = Boyd|first1 = P.W.|last2 = Newton|first2 = P.P.|journal = Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers|volume = 46|issue = 1|pages = 63–91|bibcode = 1999DSRI...46...63B}}

The Southern Ocean has often been considered as a microplankton-dominated (20–200 μm) system with phytoplankton blooms dominated by large diatoms and Phaeocystis sp.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/S0967-0645(96)00063-X|title = Spring development of phytoplankton biomass and composition in major water masses of the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean|year = 1997|last1 = Bathmann|first1 = U.V.|last2 = Scharek|first2 = R.|last3 = Klaas|first3 = C.|last4 = Dubischar|first4 = C.D.|last5 = Smetacek|first5 = V.|journal = Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|volume = 44|issue = 1–2|pages = 51–67|bibcode = 1997DSRII..44...51B|url = https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/193/1/Bat1997b.pdf}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.06.005|title = Phytoplankton community composition around the Crozet Plateau, with emphasis on diatoms and Phaeocystis|year = 2007|last1 = Poulton|first1 = Alex J.|last2 = Mark Moore|first2 = C.|last3 = Seeyave|first3 = Sophie|last4 = Lucas|first4 = Mike I.|last5 = Fielding|first5 = Sophie|last6 = Ward|first6 = Peter|journal = Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|volume = 54|issue = 18–20|pages = 2085–2105|bibcode = 2007DSRII..54.2085P}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.t01-1-01203.x|title = Environmental Factors Controlling Phytoplankton Processes in the Southern Ocean1|year = 2002|last1 = Boyd|first1 = Philip W.|journal = Journal of Phycology|volume = 38|issue = 5|pages = 844–861| bibcode=2002JPcgy..38..844B |s2cid = 53448178}} However, since the identification of the GCB as a consistent feature{{cite journal |doi = 10.1002/2016GB005414|title = Factors regulating the Great Calcite Belt in the Southern Ocean and its biogeochemical significance|year = 2016|last1 = Balch|first1 = William M.|last2 = Bates|first2 = Nicholas R.|last3 = Lam|first3 = Phoebe J.|last4 = Twining|first4 = Benjamin S.|last5 = Rosengard|first5 = Sarah Z.|last6 = Bowler|first6 = Bruce C.|last7 = Drapeau|first7 = Dave T.|last8 = Garley|first8 = Rebecca|last9 = Lubelczyk|first9 = Laura C.|last10 = Mitchell|first10 = Catherine|last11 = Rauschenberg|first11 = Sara|journal = Global Biogeochemical Cycles|volume = 30|issue = 8|pages = 1124–1144|bibcode = 2016GBioC..30.1124B| s2cid=22536090 |doi-access = free|hdl = 1912/8609|hdl-access = free}} and the recognition of picoplankton (< 2 μm) and nanoplankton (2–20 μm) importance in high-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) waters,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2006GB002726|title = A rising tide lifts all phytoplankton: Growth response of other phytoplankton taxa in diatom-dominated blooms|year = 2006|last1 = Barber|first1 = R. T.|last2 = Hiscock|first2 = M. R.|journal = Global Biogeochemical Cycles|volume = 20|issue = 4|pages = n/a|bibcode = 2006GBioC..20.4S03B|doi-access = free}} the dynamics of small (bio)mineralizing plankton and their export need to be acknowledged. The two dominant biomineralizing phytoplankton groups in the GCB are coccolithophores and diatoms. Coccolithophores are generally found north of the polar front,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.marmicro.2007.08.005|title = Ecology of coccolithophores in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean|year = 2008|last1 = Mohan|first1 = Rahul|last2 = Mergulhao|first2 = Lina P.|last3 = Guptha|first3 = M.V.S.|last4 = Rajakumar|first4 = A.|last5 = Thamban|first5 = M.|last6 = Anilkumar|first6 = N.|last7 = Sudhakar|first7 = M.|last8 = Ravindra|first8 = Rasik|journal = Marine Micropaleontology|volume = 67|issue = 1–2|pages = 30–45|bibcode = 2008MarMP..67...30M}} though Emiliania huxleyi has been observed as far south as 58° S in the Scotia Sea,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.jmarsys.2010.05.007|title = Seasonal distributions of the coccolithophore, Emiliania huxleyi, and of particulate inorganic carbon in surface waters of the Scotia Sea|year = 2010|last1 = Holligan|first1 = P.M.|last2 = Charalampopoulou|first2 = A.|last3 = Hutson|first3 = R.|journal = Journal of Marine Systems|volume = 82|issue = 4|pages = 195–205|bibcode = 2010JMS....82..195H}} at 61° S across Drake Passage, and at 65°S south of Australia.{{cite journal |doi = 10.3354/meps07058|title = Calcification morphotypes of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi in the Southern Ocean: Changes in 2001 to 2006 compared to historical data|year = 2007|last1 = Cubillos|first1 = JC|last2 = Wright|first2 = SW|last3 = Nash|first3 = G.|last4 = De Salas|first4 = MF|last5 = Griffiths|first5 = B.|last6 = Tilbrook|first6 = B.|last7 = Poisson|first7 = A.|last8 = Hallegraeff|first8 = GM|journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series|volume = 348|pages = 47–54|bibcode = 2007MEPS..348...47C|doi-access = free}}

Diatoms are present throughout the GCB, with the polar front marking a strong divide between different size fractions.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1093/plankt/17.9.1791|title = Biogeographic structure of the microphytoplankton assemblages of the south Atlantic and Southern Ocean during austral summer|year = 1995|last1 = Froneman|first1 = P.W.|last2 = McQuaid|first2 = C.D.|last3 = Perissinotto|first3 = R.|journal = Journal of Plankton Research|volume = 17|issue = 9|pages = 1791–1802}} North of the polar front, small diatom species, such as Pseudo-nitzschia spp. and Thalassiosira spp., tend to dominate numerically, whereas large diatoms with higher silicic acid requirements (e.g., Fragilariopsis kerguelensis) are generally more abundant south of the polar front. High abundances of nanoplankton (coccolithophores, small diatoms, chrysophytes) have also been observed on the Patagonian Shelf{{hsp}} and in the Scotia Sea.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.dsr2.2011.09.002|title = Comparative seasonal biogeography of mineralising nannoplankton in the Scotia Sea: Emiliania huxleyi, Fragilariopsis SPP. And Tetraparma pelagica|year = 2012|last1 = Hinz|first1 = D.J.|last2 = Poulton|first2 = A.J.|last3 = Nielsdóttir|first3 = M.C.|last4 = Steigenberger|first4 = S.|last5 = Korb|first5 = R.E.|last6 = Achterberg|first6 = E.P.|last7 = Bibby|first7 = T.S.|journal = Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|volume = 59-60|pages = 57–66|bibcode = 2012DSRII..59...57H}} Currently, few studies incorporate small biomineralizing phytoplankton to species level. Rather, the focus has often been on the larger and noncalcifying species in the Southern Ocean due to sample preservation issues (i.e., acidified Lugol’s solution dissolves calcite, and light microscopy restricts accurate identification to cells > 10 μm. In the context of climate change and future ecosystem function, the distribution of biomineralizing phytoplankton is important to define when considering phytoplankton interactions with carbonate chemistry,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2005GC001227|title = Species-specific responses of calcifying algae to changing seawater carbonate chemistry|year = 2006|last1 = Langer|first1 = Gerald|last2 = Geisen|first2 = Markus|last3 = Baumann|first3 = Karl-Heinz|last4 = Kläs|first4 = Jessica|last5 = Riebesell|first5 = Ulf|last6 = Thoms|first6 = Silke|last7 = Young|first7 = Jeremy R.|journal = Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|volume = 7|issue = 9|pages = n/a|bibcode = 2006GGG.....7.9006L| s2cid=14774230 |url = https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/14731/1/Lan2006e.pdf}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2007GL032583|title = CO2sensitivity of Southern Ocean phytoplankton|year = 2008|last1 = Tortell|first1 = Philippe D.|last2 = Payne|first2 = Christopher D.|last3 = Li|first3 = Yingyu|last4 = Trimborn|first4 = Scarlett|last5 = Rost|first5 = Björn|last6 = Smith|first6 = Walker O.|last7 = Riesselman|first7 = Christina|last8 = Dunbar|first8 = Robert B.|last9 = Sedwick|first9 = Pete|last10 = Ditullio|first10 = Giacomo R.|journal = Geophysical Research Letters|volume = 35|issue = 4|pages = L04605|bibcode = 2008GeoRL..35.4605T| s2cid=35741347 | url=https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1089&context=oeas_fac_pubs |doi-access = free}} and ocean biogeochemistry.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2010GB003856|title = Causes and biogeochemical implications of regional differences in silicification of marine diatoms|year = 2010|last1 = Baines|first1 = Stephen B.|last2 = Twining|first2 = Benjamin S.|last3 = Brzezinski|first3 = Mark A.|last4 = Nelson|first4 = David M.|last5 = Fisher|first5 = Nicholas S.|journal = Global Biogeochemical Cycles|volume = 24|issue = 4|pages = n/a|bibcode = 2010GBioC..24.4031B|doi-access = free}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1073/pnas.1309345110|title = Thick-shelled, grazer-protected diatoms decouple ocean carbon and silicon cycles in the iron-limited Antarctic Circumpolar Current|year = 2013|last1 = Assmy|first1 = P.|last2 = Smetacek|first2 = V.|last3 = Montresor|first3 = M.|last4 = Klaas|first4 = C.|last5 = Henjes|first5 = J.|last6 = Strass|first6 = V. H.|last7 = Arrieta|first7 = J. M.|last8 = Bathmann|first8 = U.|last9 = Berg|first9 = G. M.|last10 = Breitbarth|first10 = E.|last11 = Cisewski|first11 = B.|last12 = Friedrichs|first12 = L.|last13 = Fuchs|first13 = N.|last14 = Herndl|first14 = G. J.|last15 = Jansen|first15 = S.|last16 = Kragefsky|first16 = S.|last17 = Latasa|first17 = M.|last18 = Peeken|first18 = I.|last19 = Rottgers|first19 = R.|last20 = Scharek|first20 = R.|last21 = Schuller|first21 = S. E.|last22 = Steigenberger|first22 = S.|last23 = Webb|first23 = A.|last24 = Wolf-Gladrow|first24 = D.|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 110|issue = 51|pages = 20633–20638|pmid = 24248337|pmc = 3870680|bibcode = 2013PNAS..11020633A|doi-access = free}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1002/2013GB004641|title = The 2008Emiliania huxleyibloom along the Patagonian Shelf: Ecology, biogeochemistry, and cellular calcification|year = 2013|last1 = Poulton|first1 = Alex J.|last2 = Painter|first2 = Stuart C.|last3 = Young|first3 = Jeremy R.|last4 = Bates|first4 = Nicholas R.|last5 = Bowler|first5 = Bruce|last6 = Drapeau|first6 = Dave|last7 = Lyczsckowski|first7 = Emily|last8 = Balch|first8 = William M.|journal = Global Biogeochemical Cycles|volume = 27|issue = 4|pages = 1023–1033|bibcode = 2013GBioC..27.1023P| s2cid=129706569 |doi-access = free}}

The Great Calcite Belt spans the major Southern Ocean circumpolar fronts: the Subantarctic front, the polar front, the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current front, and occasionally the southern boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1357/0022240943076759|title = Water-mass distributions in the western South Atlantic; A section from South Georgia Island (54S) northward across the equator|year = 1994|last1 = Tsuchiya|first1 = Mizuki|last2 = Talley|first2 = Lynne D.|last3 = McCartney|first3 = Michael S.|journal = Journal of Marine Research|volume = 52|pages = 55–81}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/0967-0637(95)00021-W|title = On the meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current|year = 1995|last1 = Orsi|first1 = Alejandro H.|last2 = Whitworth|first2 = Thomas|last3 = Nowlin|first3 = Worth D.|journal = Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers|volume = 42|issue = 5|pages = 641–673|bibcode = 1995DSRI...42..641O}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/95JC02750|title = Southern Ocean fronts from the Greenwich meridian to Tasmania|year = 1996|last1 = Belkin|first1 = Igor M.|last2 = Gordon|first2 = Arnold L.|journal = Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans|volume = 101|issue = C2|pages = 3675–3696|bibcode = 1996JGR...101.3675B}} The subtropical front (at approximately 10 °C) acts as the northern boundary of the GCB and is associated with a sharp increase in PIC southwards. These fronts divide distinct environmental and biogeochemical zones, making the GCB an ideal study area to examine controls on phytoplankton communities in the open ocean. A high PIC concentration observed in the GCB (1 μmol PIC L⁻¹) compared to the global average (0.2 μmol PIC L⁻¹) and significant quantities of detached E. huxleyi coccoliths (in concentrations > 20,000 coccoliths mL⁻¹) both characterize the GCB. The GCB is clearly observed in satellite imagery{{hsp}} spanning from the Patagonian Shelf{{hsp}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1029/2006GL026592|title = Seasonal and interannual variability of calcite in the vicinity of the Patagonian shelf break (38°S–52°S)|year = 2006|last1 = Signorini|first1 = Sergio R.|last2 = Garcia|first2 = Virginia M. T.|last3 = Piola|first3 = Alberto R.|last4 = Garcia|first4 = Carlos A. E.|last5 = Mata|first5 = Mauricio M.|last6 = McClain|first6 = Charles R.|journal = Geophysical Research Letters|volume = 33|issue = 16|pages = L16610|bibcode = 2006GeoRL..3316610S|doi-access = free}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.csr.2010.08.013|title = The COPAS'08 expedition to the Patagonian Shelf: Physical and environmental conditions during the 2008 coccolithophore bloom|year = 2010|last1 = Painter|first1 = Stuart C.|last2 = Poulton|first2 = Alex J.|last3 = Allen|first3 = John T.|last4 = Pidcock|first4 = Rosalind|last5 = Balch|first5 = William M.|journal = Continental Shelf Research|volume = 30|issue = 18|pages = 1907–1923|bibcode = 2010CSR....30.1907P}} across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans and completing Antarctic circumnavigation via the Drake Passage.

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File:Seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt.png Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].]]

File:Four phytoplankton species.png, (b) Fragilariopsis pseudonana, (c) Fragilariopsis nana, and (d) Pseudo-nitzschia spp.]]

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File:Emiliania huxleyi.jpg}}]]

Since the industrial revolution 30% of the anthropogenic CO₂ has been absorbed by the oceans,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1126/science.1097403|title = The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2|year = 2004|last1 = Sabine|first1 = C. L.|last2 = Feely|first2 = R. A.|last3 = Gruber|first3 = N.|last4 = Key|first4 = R. M.|last5 = Lee|first5 = K.|last6 = Bullister|first6 = J. L.|last7 = Wanninkhof|first7 = R.|last8 = Wong|first8 = C. S.|last9 = Wallace|first9 = D. W.|last10 = Tilbrook|first10 = B.|last11 = Millero|first11 = F. J.|last12 = Peng|first12 = T. H.|last13 = Kozyr|first13 = A.|last14 = Ono|first14 = T.|last15 = Rios|first15 = A. F.|journal = Science|volume = 305|issue = 5682|pages = 367–371|pmid = 15256665|bibcode = 2004Sci...305..367S| hdl=10261/52596 |s2cid = 5607281|url = http://oceanrep.geomar.de/46251/1/1193.full.pdf}} resulting in ocean acidification,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1126/science.1097329|title = Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans|year = 2004|last1 = Feely|first1 = R. A.|last2 = Sabine|first2 = C. L.|last3 = Lee|first3 = K.|last4 = Berelson|first4 = W.|last5 = Kleypas|first5 = J.|last6 = Fabry|first6 = V. J.|last7 = Millero|first7 = F. J.|journal = Science|volume = 305|issue = 5682|pages = 362–366|pmid = 15256664|bibcode = 2004Sci...305..362F|s2cid = 31054160}} which is a threat to calcifying alga.{{cite journal |doi = 10.5194/bg-12-1671-2015|title = Reviews and Syntheses: Responses of coccolithophores to ocean acidification: A meta-analysis|year = 2015|last1 = Meyer|first1 = J.|last2 = Riebesell|first2 = U.|journal = Biogeosciences|volume = 12|issue = 6|pages = 1671–1682|bibcode = 2015BGeo...12.1671M|doi-access = free}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/35030078|title = Reduced calcification of marine plankton in response to increased atmospheric CO2|year = 2000|last1 = Riebesell|first1 = Ulf|last2 = Zondervan|first2 = Ingrid|last3 = Rost|first3 = Björn|last4 = Tortell|first4 = Philippe D.|last5 = Zeebe|first5 = Richard E.|last6 = Morel|first6 = François M. M.|journal = Nature|volume = 407|issue = 6802|pages = 364–367|pmid = 11014189|bibcode = 2000Natur.407..364R|s2cid = 4426501|url = https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/3784/1/Rie2000a.pdf}} As a result, there has been profound interest in these calcifying algae, boosted by their major role in the global carbon cycle.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00101-1|title = A new, mechanistic model for organic carbon fluxes in the ocean based on the quantitative association of POC with ballast minerals|year = 2001|last1 = Armstrong|first1 = Robert A.|last2 = Lee|first2 = Cindy|last3 = Hedges|first3 = John I.|last4 = Honjo|first4 = Susumu|last5 = Wakeham|first5 = Stuart G.|journal = Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|volume = 49|issue = 1–3|pages = 219–236|bibcode = 2001DSRII..49..219A}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1111/nph.12225|title = Dissecting the impact of CO 2 and pH on the mechanisms of photosynthesis and calcification in the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi|year = 2013|last1 = Bach|first1 = Lennart T.|last2 = MacKinder|first2 = Luke C. M.|last3 = Schulz|first3 = Kai G.|last4 = Wheeler|first4 = Glen|last5 = Schroeder|first5 = Declan C.|last6 = Brownlee|first6 = Colin|last7 = Riebesell|first7 = Ulf|journal = New Phytologist|volume = 199|issue = 1|pages = 121–134|pmid = 23496417| s2cid=3661323 | url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/20813/1/nph12225.pdf }}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1002/lol2.10105|title = Particulate inorganic to organic carbon production as a predictor for coccolithophorid sensitivity to ongoing ocean acidification|year = 2019|last1 = Gafar|first1 = N. A.|last2 = Eyre|first2 = B. D.|last3 = Schulz|first3 = K. G.|journal = Limnology and Oceanography Letters|volume = 4|issue = 3|pages = 62–70|doi-access = free| bibcode=2019LimOL...4...62G }}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1501822|title = Why marine phytoplankton calcify|year = 2016|last1 = Monteiro|first1 = Fanny M.|last2 = Bach|first2 = Lennart T.|last3 = Brownlee|first3 = Colin|last4 = Bown|first4 = Paul|last5 = Rickaby|first5 = Rosalind E. M.|last6 = Poulton|first6 = Alex J.|last7 = Tyrrell|first7 = Toby|last8 = Beaufort|first8 = Luc|last9 = Dutkiewicz|first9 = Stephanie|last10 = Gibbs|first10 = Samantha|last11 = Gutowska|first11 = Magdalena A.|last12 = Lee|first12 = Renee|last13 = Riebesell|first13 = Ulf|last14 = Young|first14 = Jeremy|last15 = Ridgwell|first15 = Andy|journal = Science Advances|volume = 2|issue = 7|pages = e1501822|pmid = 27453937|pmc = 4956192|bibcode = 2016SciA....2E1822M}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/nclimate2379|title = Adaptation of a globally important coccolithophore to ocean warming and acidification|year = 2014|last1 = Schlüter|first1 = Lothar|last2 = Lohbeck|first2 = Kai T.|last3 = Gutowska|first3 = Magdalena A.|last4 = Gröger|first4 = Joachim P.|last5 = Riebesell|first5 = Ulf|last6 = Reusch|first6 = Thorsten B. H.|journal = Nature Climate Change|volume = 4|issue = 11|pages = 1024–1030|bibcode = 2014NatCC...4.1024S}} Globally, coccolithophores, particularly Emiliania huxleyi, are considered to be the most dominant calcifying algae, which blooms can even be seen from outer space.{{cite journal |doi = 10.2216/i0031-8884-40-6-503.1|title = A review of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae), with particular reference to growth, coccolith formation, and calcification-photosynthesis interactions|year = 2001|last1 = Paasche|first1 = E.|journal = Phycologia|volume = 40|issue = 6|pages = 503–529| bibcode=2001Phyco..40..503P |s2cid = 84921998}} Calcifying algae create an exoskeleton from calcium carbonate platelets (coccoliths), providing ballast which enhances the organic and inorganic carbon flux to the deep sea.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0075676|title = Effect of Type and Concentration of Ballasting Particles on Sinking Rate of Marine Snow Produced by the Appendicularian Oikopleura dioica|year = 2013|last1 = Lombard|first1 = Fabien|last2 = Guidi|first2 = Lionel|last3 = Kiørboe|first3 = Thomas|journal = PLOS ONE|volume = 8|issue = 9|pages = e75676|pmid = 24086610|pmc = 3783419|bibcode = 2013PLoSO...875676L|doi-access = free}} Organic carbon is formed by means of photosynthesis, where CO₂ is fixed and converted into organic molecules, causing removal of CO₂ from the seawater. Counterintuitively, the production of coccoliths leads to the release of CO₂ in the seawater, due to removal of carbonate from the seawater, which reduces the alkalinity and causes acidification.{{cite book |doi = 10.1007/978-3-662-06278-4_5|chapter = Coccolithophores and the biological pump: Responses to environmental changes|title = Coccolithophores|year = 2004|last1 = Rost|first1 = Björn|last2 = Riebesell|first2 = Ulf|pages = 99–125|isbn = 978-3-642-06016-8}} Therefore, the ratio between particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) and particulate organic carbon (POC) is an important measure for the net release or uptake of CO₂. In short, the PIC:POC ratio is a key characteristic required to understand and predict the impact of climate change on the global ocean carbon cycle.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/nature10295|title = Sensitivity of coccolithophores to carbonate chemistry and ocean acidification|year = 2011|last1 = Beaufort|first1 = L.|last2 = Probert|first2 = I.|last3 = De Garidel-Thoron|first3 = T.|last4 = Bendif|first4 = E. M.|last5 = Ruiz-Pino|first5 = D.|last6 = Metzl|first6 = N.|last7 = Goyet|first7 = C.|last8 = Buchet|first8 = N.|last9 = Coupel|first9 = P.|last10 = Grelaud|first10 = M.|last11 = Rost|first11 = B.|last12 = Rickaby|first12 = R. E. M.|last13 = De Vargas|first13 = C.|journal = Nature|volume = 476|issue = 7358|pages = 80–83|pmid = 21814280|s2cid = 4417285}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/476041a|title = Forecasting the rain ratio|year = 2011|last1 = Hutchins|first1 = David A.|journal = Nature|volume = 476|issue = 7358|pages = 41–42|pmid = 21814273|doi-access = free}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1126/science.1154122|title = Phytoplankton Calcification in a High-CO2 World|year = 2008|last1 = Iglesias-Rodriguez|first1 = M. D.|last2 = Halloran|first2 = P. R.|last3 = Rickaby|first3 = R. E. M.|last4 = Hall|first4 = I. R.|last5 = Colmenero-Hidalgo|first5 = E.|last6 = Gittins|first6 = J. R.|last7 = Green|first7 = D. R. H.|last8 = Tyrrell|first8 = T.|last9 = Gibbs|first9 = S. J.|last10 = von Dassow|first10 = P.|last11 = Rehm|first11 = E.|last12 = Armbrust|first12 = E. V.|last13 = Boessenkool|first13 = K. P.|journal = Science|volume = 320|issue = 5874|pages = 336–340|pmid = 18420926|bibcode = 2008Sci...320..336I|s2cid = 206511068}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112808|title = Coccolithophore calcification studied by single-cell impedance cytometry: Towards single-cell PIC:POC measurements|year = 2021|last1 = De Bruijn|first1 = Douwe S.|last2 = Ter Braak|first2 = Paul M.|last3 = Van De Waal|first3 = Dedmer B.|last4 = Olthuis|first4 = Wouter|last5 = Van Den Berg|first5 = Albert|journal = Biosensors and Bioelectronics|volume = 173|page = 112808|pmid = 33221507|s2cid = 227135584|doi-access = free|hdl = 20.500.11755/aef0d454-d509-4620-89d0-a76e5a076bb6|hdl-access = free}} 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].

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File:Marine calcium particles morphologies.jpg{{hsp}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0047887|title = An Unaccounted Fraction of Marine Biogenic CaCO3 Particles|year = 2012|last1 = Heldal|first1 = Mikal|last2 = Norland|first2 = Svein|last3 = Erichsen|first3 = Egil S.|last4 = Thingstad|first4 = T. Frede|last5 = Bratbak|first5 = Gunnar|journal = PLOS ONE|volume = 7|issue = 10|pages = e47887|pmid = 23110119|pmc = 3479124|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...747887H|doi-access = free}} 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].}} A) and B) Particles resembling bacteria and microcolonies of bacteria.
B) and D) Particles similar to the Ca carbonates described to precipitate on the cell surface of cultured marine bacteria.
E) and F) Particles with one flat surface suggesting that they are formed on a surface or interface.
G and H) Particles with rhombohedral shape.
I) and J) Baton like particles resembling Bahaman ooids.
{{center|All scale bars are 2 μm except in d) where it is 1 μm and f) where it is 10 μm. Samples were collected at 5 m depth in Raunefjorden, a coastal sampling station south of Bergen, Norway.}}]]

File:Coccolithus pelagicus.jpg|Coccolithus pelagicus

File:Foram-globigerina hg.jpg| foraminiferan

File:Surface ocean present-day omega calcite, GLODAPv2.png

File:Stratified-Deep-Ocean-Waters.jpg and how the light, density, temperature and salinity gradients vary with water depth}}]]

{{clear left}}

• carbonate compensation depth
• aragonite compensation depth
• lysocline
• calcareous ooze
• Carbonate pump
• Marine biogenic calcification
• snowline: the depth at which carbonate disappear from sediments under steady-state conditions

{{reflist}}

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Category:Chemical oceanography

Category:Environmental chemistry

Category:Soil