Personal initiative
{{Short description|Behavior that overcomes barriers to achieve a goal}}
{{Context|date=July 2021}}
Personal initiative (PI) is self-starting and proactive behavior that overcomes barriers to achieve a goal.{{Cite journal|date=2001-01-01|title=4. Personal initiative: An active performance concept for work in the 21st century|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191308501230056|journal=Research in Organizational Behavior|language=en|volume=23|pages=133–187|doi=10.1016/S0191-3085(01)23005-6|issn=0191-3085|last1=Frese|first1=Michael|last2=Fay|first2=Doris|url-access=subscription}} The concept was developed by Michael Frese and coworkers in the 1990s .
The three facets of PI – self-starting, future oriented, and overcoming barriers form a syndrome of proactive behaviors relating to each other empirically. Self-starting implies that the goals are set by an individual themselves and not by someone else.{{Cite journal|last1=Frese|first1=Michael|last2=Fay|first2=Doris|last3=Hilburger|first3=Tanja|last4=Leng|first4=Karena|last5=Tag|first5=Almut|date=June 1997|title=The concept of personal initiative: Operationalization, reliability and validity in two German samples|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1997.tb00639.x|journal=Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology|language=en|volume=70|issue=2|pages=139–161|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8325.1997.tb00639.x|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=Frese|first1=Michael|last2=Kring|first2=Wolfgang|last3=Soose|first3=Andrea|last4=Zempel|first4=Jeannette|date=1996-02-01|title=Personal Initiative At Work: Differences Between East and West Germany|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/256630|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=39|issue=1|pages=37–63|doi=10.5465/256630|doi-broken-date=26 June 2025 |issn=0001-4273|url-access=subscription}} These self-started goals are often related to future orientation that involves having long-term focus and preparation for future demands and problems. Future demands can be met by proactive actions – 'pro' meaning preparatory or beforehand in Greek. Thus, a proactive approach attempts to get pre-signals signifying future obstacles and developing plans to prevent them. Implementation of long-term goals often leads to new setbacks. Initiative, therefore, implies that one will overcome these barriers actively and persistently.
PI stands in contrast to a passive approach, which is characterized by doing what one is told, giving up when faced with difficulties, and reacting to environmental demands. Proponents of PI have argued that it may become more important in future workplaces as they require a high degree of self-reliance.
PI is often conceptualized as the behavioral component of the general proactivity concept;{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=Sharon K.|last2=Bindl|first2=Uta K.|last3=Strauss|first3=Karoline|date=2010-07-01|title=Making Things Happen: A Model of Proactive Motivation|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310363732|journal=Journal of Management|language=en|volume=36|issue=4|pages=827–856|doi=10.1177/0149206310363732|s2cid=53962454|issn=0149-2063|url-access=subscription}} it is also related but not identical to work engagement.{{Cite journal|last1=Lisbona|first1=Ana|last2=Palaci|first2=Francisco|last3=Salanova|first3=Marisa|date=February 2018|title=The effects of work engagement and self-efficacy on personal initiative and performance|url=https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2016.245|journal=Psicothema|volume=30|issue=1|pages=89–96|doi=10.7334/psicothema2016.245|pmid=29363476|s2cid=35758064|hdl=10234/174861|hdl-access=free}}
Relevance
PI is developed as a performance outcome within the action (regulation) theory tradition.{{Cite journal|last=Frese|first=Michael|date=2009|title=Towards a Psychology of Entrepreneurship: An Action Theory Perspective|url=http://www.nowpublishers.com/article/Details/ENT-028|journal=Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship|language=en|volume=5|issue=6|pages=437–496|doi=10.1561/0300000028|s2cid=34796995|issn=1551-3114|url-access=subscription}} While PI is consistently linked to higher work performance and innovativeness of individuals,{{Cite journal|last1=Tornau|first1=Katharina|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|date=2013|title=Construct Clean-Up in Proactivity Research: A Meta-Analysis on the Nomological Net of Work-Related Proactivity Concepts and their Incremental Validities|url=https://iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00514.x|journal=Applied Psychology|language=en|volume=62|issue=1|pages=44–96|doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00514.x|issn=1464-0597|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=Frese|first1=Michael|last2=Teng|first2=Eric|last3=Wijnen|first3=Cees J. D.|date=1999|title=Helping to improve suggestion systems: predictors of making suggestions in companies|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%291099-1379%28199912%2920%3A7%3C1139%3A%3AAID-JOB946%3E3.0.CO%3B2-I|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|language=en|volume=20|issue=7|pages=1139–1155|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199912)20:7<1139::AID-JOB946>3.0.CO;2-I|issn=1099-1379|url-access=subscription}} it also interacts with other types of constructs of intrinsic motivation.{{Cite journal|last1=Grant|first1=Adam M.|last2=Nurmohamed|first2=Samir|last3=Ashford|first3=Susan J.|last4=Dekas|first4=Kathryn|date=November 2011|title=The performance implications of ambivalent initiative: The interplay of autonomous and controlled motivations|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0749597811000458|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes|language=en|volume=116|issue=2|pages=241–251|doi=10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.03.004|url-access=subscription}} The PI concept was used to create an effective training tool,{{Cite journal|last1=Glaub|first1=Matthias E.|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|last3=Fischer|first3=Sebastian|last4=Hoppe|first4=Maria|date=2014-04-30|title=Increasing Personal Initiative in Small Business Managers or Owners Leads to Entrepreneurial Success: A Theory-Based Controlled Randomized Field Intervention for Evidence-BasedManagement|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0234|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=354–379|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0234|issn=1537-260X|url-access=subscription}} which is now being used to help thousands of entrepreneurs and organisations in developing countries to improve their businesses.
Climate
PI Climate refers to formal and informal organizational practices which guide and support a proactive, self-starting, and persistent approach toward work.{{Cite journal|last1=Baer|first1=Markus|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|date=February 2003|title=Innovation is not enough: climates for initiative and psychological safety, process innovations, and firm performance|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/job.179|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=45–68|doi=10.1002/job.179|issn=0894-3796|url-access=subscription}} Studies have shown that individual personal initiative is related to idea generation, entrepreneurial success , and innovation implementation behavior.{{Cite journal|last1=Binnewies|first1=Carmen|last2=Ohly|first2=Sandra|last3=Sonnentag|first3=Sabine|date=December 2007|title=Taking personal initiative and communicating about ideas: What is important for the creative process and for idea creativity?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13594320701514728|journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology|volume=16|issue=4|pages=432–455|doi=10.1080/13594320701514728|s2cid=7422062|issn=1359-432X}} Similarly, a climate that fosters personal initiative helps to predict radical innovation as well as profitability of firms. As problems appear during the implementation of an innovation, innovation paired with a low level of climate for initiative may negatively affect company performance.{{Cite journal|last1=Fischer|first1=Sebastian|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|last3=Mertins|first3=Jennifer Clarissa|last4=Hardt|first4=Julia Verena|last5=Flock|first5=Thomas|last6=Schauder|first6=Juri|last7=Schmitz|first7=Michael|last8=Wiegel|first8=Jette|date=March 2014|title=Climate for Personal Initiative and Radical and Incremental Innovation in Firms: A Validation Study|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218495814500046|journal=Journal of Enterprising Culture|volume=22|issue=1|pages=91–109|doi=10.1142/s0218495814500046|issn=0218-4958|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=Michaelis|first1=Björn|last2=Stegmaier|first2=Ralf|last3=Sonntag|first3=Karlheinz|date=2010-05-04|title=Shedding light on followers' innovation implementation behavior|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683941011035304|journal=Journal of Managerial Psychology|volume=25|issue=4|pages=408–429|doi=10.1108/02683941011035304|issn=0268-3946|url-access=subscription}}
There may be higher uncertainty with new production systems leading to unexpected problems and barriers that need to be overcome; PI climate helps here to avoid production breakdowns.{{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Brett M.|last2=Cordery|first2=John L.|date=1999|title=Production uncertainty as a contextual moderator of employee reactions to job design.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0021-9010.84.3.456|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|language=en|volume=84|issue=3|pages=456–463|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.84.3.456|pmid=10380425|issn=1939-1854|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=Patterson|first1=Malcolm G.|last2=West|first2=Michael A.|last3=Wall|first3=Toby D.|date=2004|title=Integrated manufacturing, empowerment, and company performance|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/job.261|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|language=en|volume=25|issue=5|pages=641–665|doi=10.1002/job.261|issn=1099-1379|url-access=subscription}} For firm performance there is an interaction between process innovation and climate for personal initiative - climate for personal initiative functions as a moderator. Organizations that display a work environment characterized by personal initiative have a higher chance of promoting the effectiveness of process innovations.{{Cite journal|last1=Bolden|first1=Richard|last2=Waterson|first2=Patrick|last3=Warr|first3=Peter|last4=Clegg|first4=Chris|last5=Wall|first5=Toby|date=1997-01-01|title=A new taxonomy of modern manufacturing practices|url=https://doi.org/10.1108/01443579710177879|journal=International Journal of Operations & Production Management|volume=17|issue=11|pages=1112–1130|doi=10.1108/01443579710177879|issn=0144-3577|url-access=subscription}}
Facets of PI
PI suggests a model for training with action sequence goal setting, information gathering and prognosis, plan development and execution, plan monitoring, and feedback processing. The facet theory of PI depicted in the table provides a general concept of active performance from an action theory perspective.{{Cite journal|last1=Nsereko|first1=Isa|last2=Balunywa|first2=Waswa|last3=Munene|first3=John|last4=Orobia|first4=Laura|last5=Muhammed|first5=Ngoma|date=2018-01-01|editor-last=Del Giudice|editor-first=Manlio|title=Personal initiative: Its power in social entrepreneurial venture creation|journal=Cogent Business & Management|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=1443686|doi=10.1080/23311975.2018.1443686|s2cid=158455115|issn=2331-1975|doi-access=free|hdl=10419/206051|hdl-access=free}} Every step of the action sequence can be supported by PI.
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! colspan="4" |Facets of Personal Initiative |
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!Self-starting !Future oriented !Persistence |
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| Goals / redefinition of tasks
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| Information collection and prognosis
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| Planning and execution
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| Monitoring and feedback
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Training entrepreneurs
PI was used to create an effective training tool for entrepreneurs and micro-businesses in developing countries to improve their effectiveness. PI training has been studied with randomized controlled trials and shown to be successful. It leads to a proactive entrepreneurial mindset.{{Cite journal|last1=Campos|first1=Francisco|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|last3=Goldstein|first3=Markus|last4=Iacovone|first4=Leonardo|last5=Johnson|first5=Hillary C.|last6=McKenzie|first6=David|last7=Mensmann|first7=Mona|date=2017-09-22|title=Teaching personal initiative beats traditional training in boosting small business in West Africa|journal=Science|language=en|volume=357|issue=6357|pages=1287–1290|doi=10.1126/science.aan5329|pmid=28935805|bibcode=2017Sci...357.1287C|s2cid=206660431|issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free|hdl=10986/28386|hdl-access=free}} Participants learn ways to set themselves apart from other businesses, as well as to anticipate problems, overcome setbacks, improve opportunity planning skills, and do other long-term planning. Not every experiment on PI training was successful, however the impact of personal initiative training was higher in a large randomised controlled filed experiment than Traditional Business training.
Consequences
= Positive outcomes =
Higher PI workers benefit positively in their careers via several avenues including:{{Cite journal|last1=Seibert|first1=Scott E.|last2=Crant|first2=J. Michael|last3=Kraimer|first3=Maria L.|date=1999|title=Proactive personality and career success.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0021-9010.84.3.416|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|language=en|volume=84|issue=3|pages=416–427|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.84.3.416|pmid=10380421|issn=1939-1854|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite book|last=Parker|first=Sharon K.|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315797113|title=Proactivity at Work: Making Things Happen in Organizations|date=2016-12-01|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-79711-3|edition=1|language=en|doi=10.4324/9781315797113}}{{Cite journal|last1=Raabe|first1=Babette|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|last3=Beehr|first3=Terry A.|date=April 2007|title=Action regulation theory and career self-management|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2006.10.005|journal=Journal of Vocational Behavior|volume=70|issue=2|pages=297–311|doi=10.1016/j.jvb.2006.10.005|issn=0001-8791|url-access=subscription}}
- Increased innovativeness in their goals, clearer career plans, and a higher degree of execution in these goals and plans.{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Kraiger|first2=Kurt|date=January 2009|title=Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|language=en|volume=60|issue=1|pages=451–474|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505|pmid=18976113|issn=0066-4308|url-access=subscription}}
- Increased employability.
- Increased political savviness, innovation, and likelihood to take the initiative advancing their careers.{{Cite journal|last1=Vos|first1=Ans De|last2=Clippeleer|first2=Inge De|last3=Dewilde|first3=Thomas|date=2009|title=Proactive career behaviours and career success during the early career|url=https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1348/096317909X471013|journal=Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology|language=en|volume=82|issue=4|pages=761–777|doi=10.1348/096317909X471013|s2cid=143860677 |issn=2044-8325|url-access=subscription}}
- Increased career proactivity, initiative, and progression.
- Increased performance, both in the role of an employee as well as in the role of an entrepreneur.{{Cite journal|last1=Krauss|first1=Stefanie I|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|last3=Friedrich|first3=Christian|last4=Unger|first4=Jens M|date=September 2005|title=Entrepreneurial orientation: A psychological model of success among southern African small business owners|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13594320500170227|journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology|language=en|volume=14|issue=3|pages=315–344|doi=10.1080/13594320500170227|s2cid=143942664|issn=1359-432X|url-access=subscription}}
- Increased and continuous education resulting in individuals being able to work more effectively.{{Cite journal|last1=Brandstätter|first1=Veronika|last2=Heimbeck|first2=Dörte|last3=Malzacher|first3=Juliane|last4=Frese|first4=Michael|date=2003-01-01|title=Goals need implementation intentions: The model of action phases tested in the applied setting of continuing education|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320344000011|journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=37–59|doi=10.1080/13594320344000011|s2cid=55403005|issn=1359-432X|url-access=subscription}}
= Potentially negative outcomes =
PI can also have negative outcomes for employees.{{Cite journal|last1=Zacher|first1=Hannes|last2=Schmitt|first2=Antje|last3=Jimmieson|first3=Nerina L.|last4=Rudolph|first4=Cort W.|date=2018-03-23|title=Dynamic effects of personal initiative on engagement and exhaustion: The role of mood, autonomy, and support|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.2277|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|volume=40|issue=1|pages=38–58|doi=10.1002/job.2277|issn=0894-3796}} Showing PI can be harmful on different levels: for the employees themselves, for teammates, and for the entire organization. If management expects employees to be proactive, it may burden employees with extreme aspirations.{{Cite book|last=editor.|first=Parker, Sharon, editor. Bindl, Uta K.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/956946867|title=Proactivity at work : making things happen in organizations|year=2017|isbn=978-1-84872-563-8|oclc=956946867}} On the organizational level, high PI among employees may reduce the possibility of the organizations to control and to socialize members of the organization.
References
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