Pest control#In agriculture

File: Bronze Saite era art of an Egyptian cat in the Gulbenkian Museum.jpg

Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a need to keep crops free from pests. As long ago as 3000 BC in Egypt, cats were used to control pests of grain stores such as rodents.Taylor, D., [https://web.archive.org/web/20150615032605/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cc5BM_aPegkC&pg=PA9&dq=pest+cat+rats&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBDgUahUKEwixhYr7qojGAhUQF9sKHbHbABE#v=onepage&q=pest%20cat%20rats&f=false The Complete Contented Cat: Your Ultimate Guide to Feline Fulfilment], David & Charles, 2011, p.9. Archived [https://books.google.com/books?id=Cc5BM_aPegkC&dq=pest+cat+rats&pg=PA9 from the Original]{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Cite book |last=Beadle |first=Muriel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tnjgqpNKYksC&dq=pest+cat+rats&pg=PA96 |title=Cat |date=1979-10-29 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-25190-1 |language=en}} Ferrets were domesticated by 1500 BC in Europe for use as mousers. Mongooses were introduced into homes to control rodents and snakes, probably by the ancient Egyptians.Sherman, D.M., [https://books.google.com/books?id=J6oxHWOnRgoC&dq=pest+snakes+cats&pg=PA45 Tending Animals in the Global Village: A Guide to International Veterinary Medicine, John Wiley & Sons, 2007, p. 45.]

The conventional approach was probably the first to be employed, since it is comparatively easy to destroy weeds by burning them or ploughing them under, and to kill larger competing herbivores. Techniques such as crop rotation, companion planting (also known as intercropping or mixed cropping), and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history.{{cite book|author1=Chrispeels, Maarten J.|author2=Sadava, David E.|title=Plants, Genes, and Agriculture |url=https://archive.org/details/plantsgenesagric0000chri |url-access=registration|year=1994 |publisher=Jones and Bartlett Publishers |isbn=978-0-86720-871-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/plantsgenesagric0000chri/page/452 452]}}

File:Red weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) feeding on a dead African giant snail (Achatina fulica) - journal.pone.0060797.g001-F.png, here feeding on a snail, have been used to control pests in China, Southeast Asia, and Africa for many centuries.]]

Chemical pesticides were first used around 2500 BC, when the Sumerians used sulphur compounds as insecticides. Modern pest control was stimulated by the spread across the United States of the Colorado potato beetle. After much discussion, arsenical compounds were used to control the beetle and the predicted poisoning of the human population did not occur. This led the way to a widespread acceptance of insecticides across the continent.{{cite book|author=van Emden, Helmut F. |title=Pest Control|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YERHFpj5BgUC |year=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-42788-3 |pages=1–4}} With the industrialisation and mechanization of agriculture in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the introduction of the insecticides pyrethrum and derris, chemical pest control became widespread. In the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this development.

The harmful side effect of pesticides on humans has now resulted in the development of newer approaches, such as the use of biological control to eliminate the ability of pests to reproduce or to modify their behavior to make them less troublesome.{{cn|date=August 2024}} Biological control is first recorded around 300 AD in China, when colonies of weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina, were intentionally placed in citrus plantations to control beetles and caterpillars.{{cite web |title=The History of Integrated Pest Management |url=https://courses.cit.cornell.edu/ipm444/lec-notes/extra/ipm-history.html |publisher=Cornell University |access-date=27 August 2017}} which cites {{cite journal |first=G.B. |last=Orlob |date=1973 |title=Ancient and medieval plant pathology |journal=Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten |volume=26 |pages=65–294}} Also around 4000 BC in China, ducks were used in paddy fields to consume pests, as illustrated in ancient cave art. In 1762, an Indian mynah was brought to Mauritius to control locusts, and about the same time, citrus trees in Burma were connected by bamboos to allow ants to pass between them and help control caterpillars. In the 1880s, ladybirds were used in citrus plantations in California to control scale insects, and other biological control experiments followed. The introduction of DDT, a cheap and effective compound, put an effective stop to biological control experiments. By the 1960s, problems of resistance to chemicals and damage to the environment began to emerge, and biological control had a renaissance. Chemical pest control is still the predominant type of pest control today, although a renewed interest in traditional and biological pest control developed towards the end of the 20th century and continues to this day.{{cite book|author1=van Emden, H.F.|author2=Service, M.W.|title=Pest and Vector Control |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E97h4EV97KEC&pg=PA147 |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01083-2 |page=147}}

{{main|Biological pest control}}

File:Cotesia9061.8.15.07.c.jpg: parasitoid wasp (Cotesia congregata) adult with pupal cocoons on its host, a tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta (green background)]]

Biological pest control is a method of controlling pests such as insects and mites by using other organisms.{{cite book|author=Flint, Maria Louise |author2=Dreistadt, Steve H. |editor=Clark, Jack K. |title=Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-520-21801-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FBJvpMqcV9UC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515072525/https://books.google.com/books?id=FBJvpMqcV9UC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=15 May 2016 }} It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, parasitody or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. Classical biological control involves the introduction of natural enemies of the pest that are bred in the laboratory and released into the environment. An alternative approach is to augment the natural enemies that occur in a particular area by releasing more, either in small, repeated batches, or in a single large-scale release. Ideally, the released organism will breed and survive, and provide long-term control.{{cite web|title=Augmentation: The Periodic Release of Natural Enemies |url=http://www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/fea104.html |publisher=University of Wisconsin |access-date=27 August 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317104655/http://www.entomology.wisc.edu/mbcn/fea104.html |archive-date=17 March 2016 }} Biological control can be an important component of an integrated pest management programme.

For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources.{{cite web|url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/insect/05556.html|title=Bacillus thuringienis Factsheet|publisher=Colorado State University|access-date=2 June 2010}}

File:Following the plough 3 - geograph.org.uk - 1019422.jpg exposes insect pests to predators such as black-headed gulls.]]

File: Choristoneura fumiferana.jpg (adult and pupa shown), a serious pest of forests, can be monitored using pheromone traps.]]

{{main|Mechanical pest control|Insect trap|Crop rotation}}

Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as simple equipment and devices, that provides a protective barrier between plants and insects. This is referred to as tillage and is one of the oldest methods of weed control as well as being useful for pest control; wireworms, the larvae of the common click beetle, are very destructive pests of newly ploughed grassland, and repeated cultivation exposes them to the birds and other predators that feed on them.{{cite web |url=http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/content/pests/Agriotes_sputator/ |title=Agriotes sputator L. - Common Click Beetle (Wireworm)|work=Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries |access-date=27 August 2017}}

Crop rotation can help to control pests by depriving them of their host plants. It is a major tactic in the control of corn rootworm, and has reduced early season incidence of Colorado potato beetle by as much as 95%.{{cite journal |author1=Wright, R. j |date=1984 |title=Evaluation of crop rotation for control of Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in commercial potato fields on Long Island |journal=Journal of Economic Entomology |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=1254–1259 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1103&context=entomologyfacpub |doi=10.1093/jee/77.5.1254}}

{{main|Trap crop}}

A trap crop is a crop of a plant that attracts pests, diverting them from nearby crops.{{Cite journal |last1=Shelton |first1=A. M. |last2=Badenes-Perez|first2=F. R. |date=6 December 2005 |title=Concepts and applications of trap cropping in pest management |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=285–308 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150959|pmid=16332213 }} Pests aggregated on the trap crop can be more easily controlled using pesticides or other methods.{{Cite journal |last1=Holden |first1=Matthew H. |last2=Ellner |first2=Stephen P. |last3=Lee |first3=Doo-Hyung |last4=Nyrop |first4=Jan P. |last5=Sanderson |first5=John P. |date=1 June 2012 |title=Designing an effective trap cropping strategy: the effects of attraction, retention and plant spatial distribution |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=715–722 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02137.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2012JApEc..49..715H }} However, trap-cropping, on its own, has often failed to cost effectively reduce pest densities on large commercial scales, without the use of pesticides, possibly due to the pests' ability to disperse back into the main field.

{{main|Pesticide}}

File:Insecticide pine logs ips sexdentatus.jpg logs with insecticide against Ips sexdentatus, a pine engraver beetle]]

Pesticides are substances applied to crops to control pests, they include herbicides to kill weeds, fungicides to kill fungi and insecticides to kill insects. They can be applied as sprays by hand, tractors, or aircraft or as seed dressings. To be effective, the correct substance must be applied at the correct time and the method of application is important to ensure adequate coverage and retention on the crop. The killing of natural enemies of the target pest should be minimized. This is particularly important in countries where there are natural reservoirs of pests and their enemies in the countryside surrounding plantation crops, and these co-exist in a delicate balance. Often in less-developed countries, the crops are well adapted to the local situation and no pesticides are needed. Where progressive farmers are using fertilizers to grow improved crop varieties, these are often more susceptible to pest damage, but the indiscriminate application of pesticides may be detrimental in the longer term.{{cite book |author=Hill, Dennis S.|title=Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and Their Control |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ywc5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 |year=1983 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-24638-5 |pages=4–5}}{{unreliable-inline|date=November 2023}}{{failed verification|date=November 2023}}

The efficacy of chemical pesticides tends to diminish over time. This is because any organism that manages to survive the initial application will pass on its genes to its offspring and a resistant strain will be developed. In this way, some of the most serious pests have developed resistance and are no longer killed by pesticides that used to kill their ancestors. This necessitates higher concentrations of chemical, more frequent applications and a movement to more expensive formulations.{{cite book|author=Georghiou, G.P.|title=Pest Resistance to Pesticides |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SavaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-4466-7 |pages=1–3}}

Pesticides are intended to kill pests, but many have detrimental effects on non-target species; of particular concern is the damage done to honey-bees, solitary bees and other pollinating insects and in this regard, the time of day when the spray is applied can be important. The widely used neonicotinoids have been banned on flowering crops in some countries because of their effects on bees.{{cite news |title=Pesticides damage survival of bee colonies, landmark study shows |author=Carrington, Damian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jun/29/pesticides-damage-survival-of-bee-colonies-landmark-study-shows |newspaper=The Guardian |date=29 June 2017 |access-date=27 August 2017}} Some pesticides may cause cancer and other health problems in humans, as well as being harmful to wildlife.{{cite web|title=Pesticides|url=http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pesticides/|work=National Institute of Health Sciences|publisher=National Institute of Environmental Health|access-date=5 April 2013}} There can be acute effects immediately after exposure or chronic effects after continuous low-level, or occasional exposure.{{cite web |url=http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/Tutorials/core-tutorial/module04/index.aspx |title=Toxicity of Pesticides |year=2012 |work=Pesticide Safety Education Program |access-date=27 August 2017 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721082302/http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/Tutorials/core-tutorial/module04/index.aspx |url-status=dead }} Maximum residue limits for pesticides in foodstuffs and animal feed are set by many nations.{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/pesticides/max_residue_levels_en |title=Maximum Residue Levels |work=Plants |publisher=European Commission |access-date=27 August 2017}}

{{seealso|Plant defense against herbivory}}

{{seealso|Plant disease resistance}}

Using crops with inheritable resistance to pests is referred to as host-plant resistance and reduces the need for pesticide use. These crops can harm or even kill pests, repel feeding, prevent colonization, or tolerate the presence of a pest without significantly impacting yield.{{cite web |title=Host Plant Resistance |url=https://vegento.russell.wisc.edu/ipm/host-plant-resistance/ |website=vegento.russell.wisc.edu |publisher=University of Wisconsin |access-date=13 November 2023}}{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Charles Michael |title=Plant resistance to arthropods: molecular and conventional approaches |date=2005 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht, the Netherlands |isbn=978-1-4020-3702-3}}{{cite book |last1=Pedigo |first1=Larry P. |last2=Rice |first2=Marlin E. |last3=Krell |first3=Rayda K. |title=Entomology and Pest Management: Seventh Edition |date=15 March 2021 |publisher=Waveland Press |isbn=978-1-4786-4713-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBMoEAAAQBAJ |language=en}} Resistance can also occur through genetic engineering to have traits with resistance to insects, such as with Bt corn, or papaya resistance to ringspot virus.{{cite web |last1=Stearns |first1=Stacey |title=Genetic Engineering and Plant Protection {{!}} Science of GMOs |url=https://gmo.uconn.edu/topics/genetic-engineering-and-plant-protection/ |website=Genetic Engineering and Plant Protection |publisher=University of Connecticut |access-date=13 November 2023 |date=3 October 2017}} When farmers are purchasing seed, variety information often includes resistance to selected pests in addition to other traits.{{cite web |title=Disease Resistant Vegetable Varieties {{!}} Cornell Vegetables |url=https://www.vegetables.cornell.edu/pest-management/disease-factsheets/disease-resistant-vegetable-varieties/ |website=www.vegetables.cornell.edu |publisher=Cornell University |access-date=13 November 2023}}

File:Passenger pigeon shoot.jpgs, a varmint species that was known to damage crops. Overhunting resulted in complete extinction of the species.]]

{{main|Varmint hunting}}

Pest control can also be achieved via culling the pest animals — generally small- to medium-sized wild or feral mammals or birds that inhabit the ecological niches near farms, pastures or other human settlements — by employing human hunters or trappers to physically track down, kill and remove them from the area. The culled animals, known as vermin, may be targeted because they are deemed harmful to agricultural crops, livestock or facilities; serve as hosts or vectors that transmit pathogens across species or to humans; or for population control as a mean of protecting other vulnerable species and ecosystems.Tellman, Barbara. "Varmint control in Cochise County over the years." (2005)

Pest control via hunting, like all forms of harvest, has imposed an artificial selective pressure on the organisms being targeted. While varmint hunting is potentially selecting for desired behavioural and demographic changes (e.g. animals avoiding human populated areas, crops and livestock), it can also result in unpredicted outcomes such as the targeted animal adapting for faster reproductive cycles.Allendorf, Fred W.; Hard, Jeffrey J. "Human-induced evolution caused by unnatural selection through harvest of wild animals." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106. Supplement 1 (2009): 9987-9994

{{Further|Forestry}}

Forest pests present a significant problem because it is not easy to access the canopy and monitor pest populations. In addition, forestry pests such as bark beetles, kept under control by natural enemies in their native range, may be transported large distances in cut timber to places where they have no natural predators, enabling them to cause extensive economic damage.{{cite book |author1=Lieutier, François |author2=Day, Keith R. |author3=Battisti, Andrea |author4=Grégoire, Jean-Claude |author5=Evans, Hugh F. |title=Bark and Wood Boring Insects in Living Trees in Europe, a Synthesis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpgMBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |year=2007 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2241-8 |page=39}} Pheromone traps have been used to monitor pest populations in the canopy. These release volatile chemicals that attract males. Pheromone traps can detect the arrival of pests or alert foresters to outbreaks. For example, the spruce budworm, a destructive pest of spruce and balsam fir, has been monitored using pheromone traps in Canadian forests for several decades.{{cite book |author1=Humme, Hans E. |author2=Miller, Thomas A. |title=Techniques in Pheromone Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1nSBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA432 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-5220-7 |page=432}} In some regions, such as New Brunswick, areas of forest are sprayed with pesticide to control the budworm population and prevent the damage caused during outbreaks.{{cite journal |last1=Macdonald |first1=D. R. |title=Management of Spruce Budworm Populations |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |volume=44 |issue=3 |year=1968 |pages=33–36 |doi=10.5558/tfc44033-3|doi-access=free }}

Many unwelcome animals visit or make their home in residential buildings, industrial sites and urban areas. Some contaminate foodstuffs, damage structural timbers, chew through fabrics or infest stored dry goods. Some inflict great economic loss, others carry diseases or cause fire hazards, and some are just a nuisance. Control of these pests has been attempted by improving sanitation and garbage control, modifying the habitat, and using repellents, growth regulators, traps, baits and pesticides.{{cite book |author=Pat O'Connor-Marer |title=Residential, Industrial, and Institutional Pest Control |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TsmqStw-iP0C&pg=PA2 |year=2006 |publisher=UCANR Publications |isbn=978-1-879906-70-9 |pages=2–17}}

{{main|Physical pest control}}

File:Dog van Rekong Peo.jpg, Himachal Pradesh, India]]

Physical pest control involves trapping or killing pests such as insects and rodents. Historically, local people or paid rat-catchers caught and killed rodents using dogs and traps.{{Cite web|url=http://www.esdaw-eu.eu/the-stray-dogs-in-europe.html |title=ESDAW-EU |website=Animal Policy In The EU |publisher=European Union |access-date=30 August 2016}} On a domestic scale, sticky flypapers are used to trap flies. In larger buildings, insects may be trapped using such means as pheromones, synthetic volatile chemicals or ultraviolet light to attract the insects; some have a sticky base or an electrically charged grid to kill them. Glueboards are sometimes used for monitoring cockroaches and to catch rodents. Rodents can be killed by suitably baited spring traps and can be caught in cage traps for relocation. Talcum powder or "tracking powder" can be used to establish routes used by rodents inside buildings and acoustic devices can be used for detecting beetles in structural timbers.

Historically, firearms have been one of the primary methods used for pest control. "Garden Guns" are smooth bore shotguns specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot or 9mm Flobert, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for snakes, rodents, birds, and other pest. Garden Guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards, and they're relatively quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly, injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.{{cite web|last1=Eger|first1=Christopher|title=Marlin 25MG Garden Gun|url=http://www.marlinforum.com/Marlin-25MG-Garden-Gun.html|website=Marlin Firearms Forum|publisher=Outdoor Hub LLC|access-date=17 September 2016|date=28 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918005923/http://www.marlinforum.com/Marlin-25MG-Garden-Gun.html|archive-date=18 September 2016|url-status=dead}}

The most common shot cartridge is .22 Long Rifle loaded with #12 shot. At a distance of about {{cvt|10|feet}}, which is about the maximum effective range, the pattern is about {{cvt|8|inch|cm}} in diameter from a standard rifle. Special smoothbore shotguns, such as the Marlin Model 25MG can produce effective patterns out to 15 or 20 yards using .22 WMR shotshells, which hold 1/8 oz. of #12 shot contained in a plastic capsule.

File:Rodent Bait Station, Chennai, India.jpg, India]]

Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rats, mice, birds, slugs, snails, ants, cockroaches, and other pests. The basic granules, or other formulation, contains a food attractant for the target species and a suitable poison. For ants, a slow-acting toxin is needed so that the workers have time to carry the substance back to the colony, and for flies, a quick-acting substance to prevent further egg-laying and nuisance. Baits for slugs and snails often contain the molluscide metaldehyde, dangerous to children and household pets.{{cite web |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7427.html |title=Snails and slugs |author1=Flint, M.L. |author2=Wilen, C.A. |work=Pests in Gardens and Landscapes |publisher=UC IPM |access-date=28 August 2017}}

An article in Scientific American in 1885 described effective elimination of a cockroach infestation using fresh cucumber peels.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4U9AQAAIAAJ|title=Scientific American|date=1885-09-26|publisher=Munn & Company|pages=195|language=en}}

File:Rodent bait box with bait.jpg

Warfarin has traditionally been used to kill rodents, but many populations have developed resistance to this anticoagulant, and difenacoum may be substituted. These are cumulative poisons, requiring bait stations to be topped up regularly.{{cite book|author=Pat O'connor-marer |title=Residential, Industrial, and Institutional Pest Control|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TsmqStw-iP0C&pg=PA40 |year=2006 |publisher=UCANR Publications |isbn=978-1-879906-70-9}} Poisoned meat has been used for centuries to kill animals such as wolves and birds of prey.{{cite news |title=Gamekeeper found guilty of poisoning 10 buzzards and a sparrowhawk |author=Barkham, Patrick |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/oct/02/gamekeeper-guilty-poisoning-birds-of-prey-norfolk |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2 October 2014 |access-date=29 August 2017}} Poisoned carcasses however kill a wide range of carrion feeders, not only the targeted species.{{cite web |url=https://www.thelocal.es/20150609/farmer-sentenced-2-years-for-poisoning-animals |title=Farmer poisoned 24 animals in bid to kill wolf |author=Anderson, Emma |date=9 June 2015 |work=The Local |access-date=29 August 2017}} Raptors in Israel were nearly wiped out following a period of intense poisoning of rats and other crop pests.{{cite book|author=Newton, Ian|title=Population Ecology of Raptors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3f7UBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA262 |year=2010 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4081-3854-0 |page=262}}

{{main|Fumigation}}

File:Tent fumigation.jpg of a house in the United States ]]

Fumigation is the treatment of a structure to kill pests such as wood-boring beetles by sealing it or surrounding it with an airtight cover such as a tent, and fogging with liquid insecticide for an extended period, typically of 24–72 hours. This is costly and inconvenient as the structure cannot be used during the treatment, but it targets all life stages of pests.{{cite book |author=Fred Baur |title=Insect Management for Food Storage and Processing |publisher=American Association of Cereal Chemists |isbn=978-0-913250-38-9|date=1984-12-01 }}

An alternative, space treatment, is fogging or misting to disperse a liquid insecticide in the atmosphere within a building without evacuation or airtight sealing, allowing most work within the building to continue, at the cost of reduced penetration. Contact insecticides are generally used to minimize long-lasting residual effects.

{{See also|Sterile insect technique|Chemosterilant}}

Populations of pest insects can sometimes be dramatically reduced by the release of sterile individuals. This involves the mass rearing of a pest, sterilising it by means of X-rays or some other means, and releasing it into a wild population. It is particularly useful where a female only mates once and where the insect does not disperse widely.{{cite book|author=Thacker, J.R.M.|title=An Introduction to Arthropod Pest Control|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jN7lCC_BaG4C&pg=PA193 |year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56787-9 |page=193}} This technique has been successfully used against the New World screw-worm fly, some species of tsetse fly, tropical fruit flies, the pink bollworm and the codling moth, among others.{{cite book|author1=Dyck, V.A.|author2=Hendrichs, J.|author3=Robinson, A.S.|title=Sterile Insect Technique: Principles and Practice in Area-Wide Integrated Pest Management|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-vOLhFewchoC&pg=PA4 |year=2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-4051-1 |page=4}}

To chemically sterilize pests using chemosterilants, laboratory studies conducted using U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) attempted in the early 1970s for rat control, although these proved unsuccessful.{{cite journal |author1=Bowerman, Alan M. |author2=Brooks, Joe E. |year=1971 |title=Evaluation of U-5897 as a male chemosterilant for rat control |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=618–624 |jstor=3799765 |doi=10.2307/3799765}} In 2013, New York City tested sterilization traps,{{cite news|author1=Tracy Swartz|title=CTA to put rats on birth control|url=http://www.redeyechicago.com/news/cta/redeye-cta-to-put-rats-on-birth-control-20141222,0,451858.story|access-date=10 January 2015|agency=Chicago Tribune|date=22 December 2014}} demonstrating a 43% reduction in rat populations. The product ContraPest was approved for the sterilization of rodents by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in August 2016 as a chemosterilant.{{cite web |url=http://www.pctonline.com/article/senestech-contrapest-rodent-product-epa-approval/ |publisher=Pest Control Technology, GIA Media |title=ContraPest Rodent Control Product Wins EPA Approval |date=12 August 2016 |access-date=11 November 2016}}

Boron, a known pesticide can be impregnated into the paper fibers of cellulose insulation at certain levels to achieve a mechanical kill factor for self-grooming insects such as ants, cockroaches, termites, and more. The addition of insulation into the attic and walls of a structure can provide control of common pests in addition to known insulation benefits such a robust thermal envelope and acoustic noise-canceling properties. The EPA regulates this type of general-use pesticide within the United States allowing it to only be sold and installed by licensed pest management professionals as part of an integrated pest management program.{{cite web |url=http://www.pctonline.com/article/add-on-services-finding-money-in-the-attic/|publisher=Pest Control Technology, GIA Media |title=Finding Money in the Attic |date=25 May 2017 |access-date=7 June 2017}} Simply adding Boron or an EPA-registered pesticide to an insulation does not qualify it as a pesticide. The dosage and method must be carefully controlled and monitored.

{{See also|Bedbug}}

Rodent control is vital in cities.{{cite book | last1=Buckle | first1=A. P. | last2=Smith | first2=Robert H. | title=Rodent pests and their control | publication-place=Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK | date=2015 | isbn=978-1-78064-129-4 | oclc=909425458 | page=x+422}} {{isbn|9781845938178}}.{{rp|page=133}} New York City and cities across the state dramatically reduced their rodent populations in the early 1970s.{{rp|page=133}} Rio de Janeiro claims a reduction of 80% over only 2 years shortly thereafter.{{rp|page=133}} To better target efforts, London began scientifically surveying populations in 1972 and this was so useful that all Local Authorities in England and Wales soon followed.{{rp|page=133}}

File:Rat pest control underground.png infestation]]

Several wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form of rodent control through exclusion and predator support and preventing secondary poisoning altogether.{{cite web |title=Help WildCare Pursue Stricter Rodenticide Controls in California |url=http://www.wildcarebayarea.org/site/PageServer?pagename=TakeAction_Rodenticide |work=wildcarebayarea.org/ |publisher=Wild Care |access-date=28 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305130340/http://www.wildcarebayarea.org/site/PageServer?pagename=TakeAction_Rodenticide |archive-date=5 March 2014 }} The United States Environmental Protection Agency notes in its Proposed Risk Mitigation Decision for Nine Rodenticides that "without habitat modification to make areas less attractive to commensal rodents, even eradication will not prevent new populations from recolonizing the habitat."{{cite web|title=Safer Rodenticide Products|url=http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/reregistration/rodenticides/|work=epa.gov|publisher=USA Environment Protection Agency|access-date=23 February 2014|date=March 2013}} The United States Environmental Protection Agency has prescribed guidelines for natural rodent control{{cite web|title=Pest Control and Pesticide Safety for Consumers|url=https://www.epa.gov/safepestcontrol|access-date=23 July 2017|date=2013-02-21}} and for safe trapping in residential areas with subsequent release to the wild.{{cite web|last1=Craft|first1=Stephanie|title=5 Reasons Why a DIY Approach to Pest Control Fails|url=https://medium.com/@stephaniecrft/5-reasons-why-a-diy-approach-to-pest-control-fails-c0fdf5228070|access-date=23 July 2017|date=2017-05-10}} People sometimes attempt to limit rodent damage using repellents. Balsam fir oil from the tree Abies balsamea is an EPA approved non-toxic rodent repellent.[https://www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/registration/fs_PC-129035_26-Apr-07.pdf Balsam fir oil (129035) Fact Sheet | Pesticides | US EPA] Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha root emits chemical compounds that repel animals including rats.{{Cite web |url=http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/acaciapoly.htm |title=PlantZAfrica.com |access-date=17 January 2009 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514033609/http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab/acaciapoly.htm |url-status=dead }}[http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/af/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=99 World AgroForestry Centre] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928042556/http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/af/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=99 |date=28 September 2007 }}

File:Tribolium castaneum.jpg, attacks stored grain products worldwide.]]

Insect pests including the Mediterranean flour moth, the Indian mealmoth, the cigarette beetle, the drugstore beetle, the confused flour beetle, the red flour beetle, the merchant grain beetle, the sawtoothed grain beetle, the wheat weevil, the maize weevil and the rice weevil infest stored dry foods such as flour, cereals and pasta.{{Cite web |url=http://ento.psu.edu/extension/factsheets/mediterranean-flour-moth |title=Mediterranean Flour Moth (Department of Entomology) |website=Department of Entomology (Penn State University) |access-date=14 November 2017}}

In the home, foodstuffs found to be infested are usually discarded, and storing such products in sealed containers should prevent the problem from reoccurring. The eggs of these insects are likely to go unnoticed, with the larvae being the destructive life stage, and the adult the most noticeable stage.{{cite web |url=http://ento.psu.edu/extension/factsheets/cereal-and-pantry-pests |title=Cereal and Pantry Pests |author=Jacobs, Steve |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=Penn State: Department of Entomology |access-date=30 August 2017}} Since pesticides are not safe to use near food, alternative treatments such as freezing for four days at {{convert|0|°F}} or baking for half an hour at {{convert|130|°F}} should kill any insects present.{{cite web |url=https://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/insects/find/insect-pests-of-stored-food/ |title=Insect pests of stored foods |author1=Hahn, Jeffrey |author2=Jesse, Laura |author3=Pellitteri, Phil |publisher=University of Minnesota Extension |access-date=30 August 2017}}

File:MiteTineola 1233096.jpg with characteristic damage to fabric]]

The larvae of clothes moths (mainly Tineola bisselliella and Tinea pellionella) feed on fabrics and carpets, particularly those that are stored or soiled. The adult females lay batches of eggs on natural fibres, including wool, silk, and fur, as well as cotton and linen in blends. The developing larvae spin protective webbing and chew into the fabric, creating holes and specks of excrement. Damage is often concentrated in concealed locations, under collars and near seams of clothing, in folds and crevices in upholstery and round the edges of carpets as well as under furniture.{{cite web|last=Choe| first=D.-H.|title=Clothes moths|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7435.html |date=1 March 2013 |publisher=Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California |access-date=1 September 2017}} Methods of control include using airtight containers for storage, periodic laundering of garments, trapping, freezing, heating and the use of chemicals; mothballs contain volatile insect repellents such as 1,4-Dichlorobenzene which deter adults, but to kill the larvae, permethrin, pyrethroids or other insecticides may need to be used.

Carpet beetles are members of the family Dermestidae, and while the adult beetles feed on nectar and pollen, the larvae are destructive pests in homes, warehouses, and museums. They feed on animal products including wool, silk, leather, fur, the bristles of hair brushes, pet hair, feathers, and museum specimens. They tend to infest hidden locations and may feed on larger areas of fabrics than do clothes moths, leaving behind specks of excrement and brown, hollow, bristly-looking cast skins.{{cite web|last=Choe| first=D.-H.|title=Carpet beetles |url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7436.html |date=1 December 2012 |publisher=Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California |access-date=1 September 2017}} Management of infestations is difficult and is based on exclusion and sanitation where possible, resorting to pesticides when necessary. The beetles can fly in from outdoors and the larvae can survive on lint fragments, dust, and inside the bags of vacuum cleaners. In warehouses and museums, sticky traps baited with suitable pheromones can be used to identify problems, and heating, freezing, spraying the surface with insecticide, and fumigation will kill the insects when suitably applied. Susceptible items can be protected from attack by keeping them in clean airtight containers.

Books are sometimes attacked by cockroaches, silverfish, book mites, booklice,{{cite book|author=Greenfield, Jane|title=The Care of Fine Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KR3nBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 |year=2014 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |isbn=978-1-62914-048-3 |page=67}} and various beetles which feed on the covers, paper, bindings and glue. They leave behind physical damage in the form of tiny holes as well as staining from their faeces. Book pests include the larder beetle, and the larvae of the black carpet beetle and the drugstore beetle which attack leather-bound books, while the common clothes moth and the brown house moth attack cloth bindings. These attacks are largely a problem with historic books, because modern bookbinding materials are less susceptible to this type of damage.{{cite book |last=Murray |first=Stuart |title=The Library: An Illustrated History |year=2009 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |page=198}}

Evidence of attack may be found in the form of tiny piles of book-dust and specks of frass. Damage may be concentrated in the spine, the projecting edges of pages and the cover. Prevention of attack relies on keeping books in cool, clean, dry positions with low humidity, and occasional inspections should be made. Treatment can be by freezing for lengthy periods, but some insect eggs are very resistant and can survive for long periods at low temperatures. Approximately 1.5% to 3.8% of books are infested by pests each year, affecting millions of books globally.{{cite web |last=Sikdar |first=Tuhin Subhra |date=March 3, 2025 |title=How to get rid of bookworms |url=https://goldenpestsolutions.com/blog/how-to-get-rid-of-bookworms/ |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Golden Pest Solutions |publisher=Tuhin Subhra Sikdar}}

File:130312 Tesarik krovovy Hylotrupes bajulus (7).JPG, Hylotrupes bajulus, in their burrows, which are partially filled with frass]]

Various beetles in the Bostrichoidea superfamily attack the dry, seasoned wood used as structural timber in houses and to make furniture. In most cases, it is the larvae that do the damage; these are invisible from the outside of the timber but are chewing away at the wood in the interior of the item. Examples of these are the powderpost beetles, which attack the sapwood of hardwoods, and the furniture beetles, which attacks softwoods, including plywood. The damage has already been done by the time the adult beetles bore their way out, leaving neat round holes behind them. The first that a householder knows about the beetle damage is often when a chair leg breaks off or a piece of structural timber caves in. Prevention is possible through chemical treatment of the timber prior to its use in construction or in furniture manufacturing.{{cite book|author1=Gerozisis, John|author2=Hadlington, Phillip |author3=Staunton, Ion|title=Urban Pest Management in Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyFqiIG_aacC&pg=PA131 |year=2008 |publisher=UNSW Press |isbn=978-0-86840-894-1 |pages=131–135}}

Termites with colonies in close proximity to houses can extend their galleries underground and make mud tubes to enter homes. The insects keep out of sight and chew their way through structural and decorative timbers, leaving the surface layers intact, as well as through cardboard, plastic and insulation materials. Their presence may become apparent when winged insects appear and swarm in the home in spring. Regular inspection of structures by a trained professional may help detect termite activity before the damage becomes substantial.;{{cite book|last=Thorne, Ph.D|first=Barbara L. |date=1999 |title=NPMA Research Report On Subterranean Termites |location=Dunn Loring, VA |publisher=NPMA|page=41|url=https://entomology.umd.edu/thorne-barbara-l.html}} Inspection and monitoring of termites is important because termite alates (winged reproductives) may not always swarm inside a structure. Control and extermination is a professional job involving trying to exclude the insects from the building and trying to kill those already present. Soil-applied liquid termiticides provide a chemical barrier that prevents termites from entering buildings, and lethal baits can be used; these are eaten by foraging insects, and carried back to the nest and shared with other members of the colony, which goes into slow decline.{{cite web |url=https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef604 |title=Termite Control: Answers for Homeowners |date=1 March 2004 |work=Termite control |publisher=University of Kentucky: Entomology |access-date=3 September 2017}}

File:Aedes aegypti biting human.jpg) biting a human]]

Mosquitoes are midge-like flies in the family Culicidae. Females of most species feed on blood and some act as vectors for malaria and other diseases. Historically they have been controlled by use of DDT and other chemical means, but since the adverse environmental effects of these insecticides have been realized, other means of control have been attempted. The insects rely on water in which to breed and the first line of control is to reduce possible breeding locations by draining marshes and reducing accumulations of standing water. Other approaches include biological control of larvae by the use of fish or other predators, genetic control, the introduction of pathogens, growth-regulating hormones, the release of pheromones and mosquito trapping.{{cite book|author=National Academy of Sciences (U.S.). Panel on Perspectives in Mosquito-Control Methods Suitable for Developing Countries|title=Mosquito Control: Some Perspectives for Developing Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wl8rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2 |year=1973 |publisher=National Academies |pages=2–6}}

{{Further|Bird strike}}

File:JT8D Engine after Bird Strike.jpg fan blades damaged by bird strike]]

Birds are a significant hazard to aircraft, but it is difficult to keep them away from airfields. Several methods have been explored. Stunning birds by feeding them a bait containing stupefying substances has been tried, and it may be possible to reduce their numbers on airfields by reducing the number of earthworms and other invertebrates by soil treatment.{{cite book |author1=Murton, R.K. |author2=Wright, E.N. |title=The Problems of Birds as Pests: Proceedings of a Symposium Held at the Royal Geographical Society, London, on 28 and 29 September 1967|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kx_gBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |year=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-4832-6836-1 |pages=100, 184}} Leaving the grass long on airfields rather than mowing it is also a deterrent to birds.{{cite book |title=New Scientist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLTpT4U7rJcC&pg=PA44 |date=29 May 1986 |publisher=Reed Business Information |pages=44–47 | issn=0262-4079}} Sonic nets are being trialled; these produce sounds that birds find distracting and seem effective at keeping birds away from affected areas.{{cite web |url=http://www.exeter.ac.uk/news/featurednews/title_510056_en.html |title=Sonic net could save birds and aircraft, study suggests |author1=Swaddle, John P. |author2=Moseley, Dana L. |author3=Hinders, Mark K. |author4=Peyton Smith, E. |date=6 May 2016 |publisher=University of Exeter |access-date=28 August 2017}}

• Bee removal
• Electronic pest control
• Garden guns
• Nuisance wildlife management
• Rabbits in Australia
• Wildlife contraceptive

{{Reflist}}

• [https://www.epa.gov/safepestcontrol Pest Control and Pesticide Safety for Consumers]

{{Insecticides}}

{{Rodenticides}}

{{Hunting topics}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pest Control}}