Philosophy of happiness

File:Hendrik ter Brugghen - Democritus.jpg, 1628.]]

Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) is known as the 'laughing philosopher' because of his emphasis on the value of 'cheerfulness'.{{cite book |url = http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democritus/ |title = Democritus |website = stanford.edu |publisher = Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year = 2016 }}

{{rquote|right|The man who makes everything that leads to happiness depends upon himself, and not upon other men, has adopted the very best plan for living happily|Plato, The Republic}}

Plato (c. 428{{snd}} c. 347 BCE) teaches in the Republic that a life committed to knowledge and virtue will result in happiness and self-realization. To achieve happiness, one should become immune to changes in the material world and strive to gain the knowledge of the eternal, immutable forms that reside in the realm of ideas.{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Claire |title=How to Be Happy According to Plato |url=https://www.thecollector.com/how-to-be-happy-according-to-plato/ |website=TheCollector|date=28 July 2022 }}

The Chariot Allegory from the Phaedrus is possibly Plato’s most important teaching on how to achieve inner happiness.

Plato sees societal happiness stemming from citizens treating each other justly, leading virtuous lives, and each fulfilling their social function.{{cite journal |last1=Mohr |first1=Richard D. |title=A Platonic Happiness |journal=History of Philosophy Quarterly |date=1987 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=131–145 |jstor=27743804 }}

File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg, created by Romans in 330 BC.]]

Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE) was considered an ancient Greek scholar in the disciplines of ethics, metaphysics, biology and botany, amongst others.{{cite book |last1=Dimmock |first1=Mark |last2=Fisher |first2=Andrew |chapter=Aristotelian Virtue Ethics |title=Ethics for A-Level |date=2017 |pages=49–63 |publisher=Open Book Publishers |jstor=j.ctt1wc7r6j.7 |isbn=978-1-78374-388-9 }} Aristotle described eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία) as the goal of human thought and action. Eudaimonia is often translated to mean happiness, but some scholars contend that "human flourishing" may be a more accurate translation.Daniel N. Robinson. (1999). Aristotle's Psychology. Published by Daniel N. Robinson. {{ISBN|0-9672066-0-X}} {{ISBN|978-0967206608}} More specifically, eudaimonia (arete, Greek: ἀρετή) refers to an inherently positive and divine state of being in which humanity can actively strive for and achieve. Given that this state is the most positive state for a human to be in, it is often simplified to mean happiness. However, Aristotle's use of the term in Nicomachiean Ethics extends beyond the general sense of happiness.Aristotle., Bartlett, R. C., & Collins, S. D. (2011). Aristotle's Nicomachean ethics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Within the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle points to the fact that many aims are really only intermediate aims, and are desired only because they make the achievement of higher aims possible.Book I Chapter 1 [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker+page%3D1094a 1094a]. Therefore, things such as wealth, intelligence, and courage are valued only in relation to other things, while eudaimonia is the only thing valuable by itself.

Aristotle regarded virtue as necessary for a person to be happy and held that without virtue the most that may be attained is contentment. Within Aristotelian ethics, achieving virtue involves asking the question "how should I be" rather than "what should I do". A fully virtuous person is described as achieving eudaimonia, and therefore would be undeniably happy.Kraut, Richard, "Aristotle's Ethics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

File:Greek philosopher busts.jpg, Antisthenes, Chrysippus, and Epicurus.]]

Antisthenes (c. 445 – c. 365 BCE), often regarded as the founder of Cynicism, advocated an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Xenophon testifies that Antisthenes had praised the joy that sprang "from out of one's soul,"Xenophon, Symposium, iv. 41. and Diogenes Laërtius relates that Antisthenes was fond of saying: "I would rather go mad than feel pleasure."Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, vi. 3 He maintained that virtue was sufficient in itself to ensure happiness, only needing the strength of a Socrates.

He, along with all following Cynics, rejected any conventional notions of happiness involving money, power, and fame, to lead entirely virtuous, and thus happy, lives.[http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cynics.htm Cynics] – The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Thus, happiness can be gained through rigorous training (askesis, Greek: ἄσκησις) and by living in a way which was natural for humans, rejecting all conventional desires, preferring a simple life free from all possessions.

Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412 – c. 323 BCE) is most frequently seen as the perfect embodiment of the philosophy. The Stoics themselves saw him as one of the few, if not only, who have had achieved the state of sage.{{cite web |url = http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/497576 |title=The Stoic Sage |website=ancientworlds.net }}

{{rquote|right|As a consequence the sage, even if he has his troubles, will nonetheless be happy, even if few pleasures accrue to him.|Diogenes Laërtius on AnnicerisDiogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, ii. 96–97Diogenes the Cynics: Sayings and Anecdotes with Other Popular Moralists, trans. Robin Hard. Oxford University Press, 2012. Page 152.}}

The Cyrenaics were a school of philosophy established by Aristippus of Cyrene (c. 435 – c. 356 BCE). The school asserted that the only good is positive pleasure, and pain is the only evil. They posit that all feeling is momentary so all past and future pleasure have no real existence for an individual, and that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind.{{cite book |last=Annas |first=Julia |author-link=Julia Annas |year=1995 |title=The Morality of Happiness |url=https://archive.org/details/moralityhappines00anna |url-access=limited |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-509652-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/moralityhappines00anna/page/n240 230]}} Claudius Aelianus, in his Historical Miscellany,Aelian, Historical Miscellany 14.6 writes about Aristippus:

{{blockquote|"He recommended that one should concrete on the present day, and indeed on the very part of it in which one is acting and thinking. For only the present, he said, truly belongs to us, and not what has passed by or what we are anticipating: for the one is gone and done with, and it is uncertain whether the other will come to be"Diogenes the Cynics: Sayings and Anecdotes with Other Popular Moralists, trans. Robin Hard. Oxford University Press, 2012. Page 124.}}

Some immediate pleasures can create more than their equivalent of pain. The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than be enslaved to them, otherwise pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the different pleasures of life.{{cite book|last=Copleston |first=Frederick Charles |author-link=Frederick Copleston |year=2003 |title=A History of Philosophy: Book 1 |publisher=Continuum International |isbn=0-8264-6895-0 |page=122}}

Pyrrho (c. 360 – c. 270 BCE) founded Pyrrhonism, the first Western school of philosophical skepticism. The goal of Pyrrhonist practice is to attain the state of ataraxia (ataraxia, Greek: ἀταραξία) – freedom from perturbation. Pyrrho identified that what prevented people from attaining ataraxia was their beliefs in non-evident matters, i.e., holding dogmas. To free people from belief the ancient Pyrrhonists developed a variety of skeptical arguments.

{{rquote|right|Of all the means which wisdom acquires to ensure happiness throughout the whole of life, by far the most important is friendship.|Epicurus{{cite web|url=http://www.epicurus.net/en/principal.html|title=Epicurus – Principal Doctrines|author=Vincent Cook|website=epicurus.net|access-date=3 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407084128/http://www.epicurus.net/en/principal.html|archive-date=7 April 2007|url-status=dead}}}}

Epicurus (c. 341 – c. 270 BCE), the founder of Epicureanism, taught that the aim of life was to attain a state of tranquility (ataraxia, Greek: ἀταραξία) and freedom from fear, as well as absence of bodily pain (aponia, Greek: ἀπονία). Toward these ends, Epicurus recommended an ascetic lifestyle, noble friendship, and the avoidance of politics.

One aid to achieving happiness is the tetrapharmakos or the four-fold cure:

File:Tetrapharmakos PHerc 1005 col 5.png copy depicting the Epicurean tetrapharmakos in Philodemus of Gadara's Adversus Sophistas – (P.Herc.1005), col. 5]]

"Do not fear god,

Do not worry about death;

What is good is easy to get, and

What is terrible is easy to endure."

(Philodemus, Herculaneum Papyrus, 1005, 4.9–14).{{cite book |last = Hutchinson |first = D. S. (Introduction) |title = The Epicurus Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia |location = Cambridge |publisher = Hackett |year =1994 |page = vi }}

{{rquote|right|If you work at that which is before you, following right reason seriously, vigorously, calmly, without allowing anything else to distract you, but keeping your divine part pure, as if you were bound to give it back immediately; if you hold to this, expecting nothing, but satisfied to live now according to nature, speaking heroic truth in every word that you utter, you will live happy. And there is no man able to prevent this.|Marcus Aurelius, MeditationsMarcus Aurelius, Meditations. iii.12}}

Stoicism was a school of philosophy established by Zeno of Citium (c. 334 – c. 262 BCE). While Zeno was syncretic in thought, his primary influence were the Cynics, with Crates of Thebes (c. 365 – c. 285 BCE) as his mentor. Stoicism is a philosophy of personal ethics that provides a system of logic and views about the natural world.Sharpe, Matthew. "Stoic Virtue Ethics." Handbook of Virtue Ethics, 2013, 28–41.

Modern use of the term "stoic" typically refers not to followers of Stoicism, but to individuals who feel indifferent to experiences of the world, or represses feelings in general."Modern Stoicism | Build The Fire". Build The Fire. 9 February 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016. Given Stoicism's emphasis on feeling indifferent to negativity, it is seen as a path to achieving happiness.Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Online Etymology Dictionary – Stoic". Retrieved 2 September 2006.

Stoics believe that "virtue is sufficient for happiness".[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/ Stoicism], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. One who has attained this sense of virtue would become a sage. In the words of Epictetus, this sage would be "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy."Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy

The Stoics therefore spent their time trying to attain virtue. This would only be achieved if one was to dedicate their life studying Stoic logic, Stoic physics, and Stoic ethics. Stoics describe themselves as "living in agreement with nature." Certain schools of Stoicism refer to Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia as the goal of practicing Stoic philosophy.{{cite journal |last1=Inwood |first1=Brad |title=Goal and Target in Stoicism |journal=The Journal of Philosophy |date=1986 |volume=83 |issue=10 |pages=547–556 |doi=10.2307/2026429 |jstor=2026429 }}

The School of the Sextii was founded by Quintus Sextius the Elder (fl. 50 BCE). It characterized itself mainly as a philosophical-medical school, blending Pythagorean, Platonic, Cynic, and Stoic elements together.{{cite journal|title=Philosophical thought of the School of the Sextii – Di Paola – EPEKEINA. International Journal of Ontology. History and Critics|volume=4|issue=1–2|journal=Ricercafilosofica.it|doi=10.7408/epkn.v4i1-2.74|date=2014-06-13|last1=Paola|first1=Omar Di}} They argued that to achieve happiness, one ought to be vegetarian, have nightly examinations of conscience, and avoid both consumerism and politics,Emily Wilson, The Greatest Empire: A Life of Seneca. Oxford University Press, 2014. p.54-55 and believe that an elusive incorporeal power pervades the body.

{{rquote|right|The happy life is joy based on the truth. This is joy grounded in you, O God, who are the truth.|St. Augustine, Confessions.St. Augustine, Confessions. Trans, Henry Chadwick. Oxford University Press, 2008. p:199}}

St. Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 AD) was an early Christian theologian and philosopher{{cite encyclopedia|last=Mendelson|first=Michael|title=Saint Augustine|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/augustine/|publisher=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=21 December 2012|date=2000-03-24}} whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy.

For St. Augustine, all human actions revolve around love, and the primary problem humans face is the misplacing of love.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ethics-everyone/201106/achieving-hapGenesis creation narrativepiness-advice-augustine Only in God can one find happiness, as He is source of happiness. Since humanity was brought forth from God, but has since fallen, one's soul dimly remembers the happiness from when one was with God.{{cite journal |last1=O'Connell |first1=R. J. |title=The Enneads and St. Augustine's Image of Happiness |journal=Vigiliae Christianae |date=1963 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=129–164 |doi=10.2307/1582804 |jstor=1582804 }} Thus, if one orients themselves toward the love of God, all other loves will become properly ordered.{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/ethics-everyone/201106/achieving-happiness-advice-augustine|title=Achieving Happiness: Advice from Augustine|work=Psychology Today}} In this manner, St. Augustine follows the Neoplatonic tradition in asserting that happiness lays in the contemplation of the purely intelligible realm.

St. Augustine deals with the concept of happiness directly in his treatises De beata vita and Contra Academicos.

{{rquote|right|Mortal creatures have one overall concern. This they work at by toiling over a whole range of pursuits, advancing on different paths, but striving to attain the one goal of happiness.|Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy.{{cite web |url = http://www.catholic.com/magazine/articles/true-happiness-and-the-consolation-of-philosophy |title = True Happiness and The Consolation of Philosophy |website = catholic.com |access-date = 3 October 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161220193626/http://www.catholic.com/magazine/articles/true-happiness-and-the-consolation-of-philosophy |archive-date = 20 December 2016 |url-status = dead }}}}

Boethius (c. 480–524 AD) was a philosopher, most famous for writing The Consolation of Philosophy. The work has been described as having had the single most important influence on the Christianity of the Middle Ages and early Renaissance and as the last great work of the Classical Period.Introduction to The Consolation of Philosophy, Oxford World's Classics, 2000.{{NoteTag|Dante identified Boethius as the "last of the Romans and first of the Scholastics" among the doctors in his Paradise (see The Divine Comedy and also below).}} The book describes many themes, but among them he discusses how happiness can be attainable despite changing fortune, while considering the nature of happiness and God.

He posits that happiness is acquired by attaining the perfect good, and that perfect good is God. He then concludes that as God ruled the universe through Love, prayer to God and the application of Love would lead to true happiness.Sanderson Beck (1996).

File:Avicenna Drawing.jpg

Avicenna (c. 980–1037), also known as 'Ibn-Sina', was a polymath and jurist; he is regarded as one of the most significant thinkers in the Islamic Golden Age.{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45755/Avicenna |title=Avicenna (Persian philosopher and scientist) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |access-date=2012-01-07}} According to him, happiness is the aim of humans, and that real happiness is pure and free from worldly interest.{{cite book |last1=Engebretson |first1=Kath |last2=de Souza |first2=Marian |last3=Durka |first3=Gloria |last4=Gearon |first4=Liam |title=International Handbook of Inter-religious Education |date=17 August 2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-9260-2 |page=208 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oNXfvBjqKZYC&q=avicenna+happiness&pg=PA208 }} Ultimately, happiness is reached through the conjunction of the human intellect with the separate active intellect.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/|title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West|encyclopedia=stanford.edu|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|year=2018}}

Al-Ghazali (c. 1058–1111) was a Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher, and mystic of Persian descent.{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ghazali, al-|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/al-Ghazali.aspx|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|access-date=17 December 2012}} Produced near the end of his life, al-Ghazali wrote The Alchemy of Happiness (Kimiya-yi Sa'ādat, ({{langx|fa|كيمياى سعادت}}).{{cite journal |last1=Böwering |first1=Gerhard |title=Review of The Alchemy of Happiness, Abû Hâmid Muḥammad al-Ghazzâlî |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |date=1995 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=227–228 |doi=10.1086/373761 |jstor=546305 }} In the work, he emphasizes the importance of observing the ritual requirements of Islam, the actions that would lead to salvation, and the avoidance of sin. According to Al-Ghazali, there are four main constituents of happiness: self-knowledge, knowledge of God, knowledge of this world as it really is, and the knowledge of the next world as it really is.{{cite web|url=http://www.sunnah.org/tasawwuf/alchemy.htm|title=The Alchemy of Happiness|author=Imam Muhammad Al-Ghazali|year=1910|access-date=8 January 2016}}{{PD-notice}} Only by exercising the human faculty of reason – a God-given ability – can one transform the soul from worldliness to complete devotion to God, the ultimate happiness.{{cite journal |last1=Bodman |first1=Herbert L. |title=Review of The Alchemy of Happiness |journal=Journal of World History |date=1993 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=336–338 |jstor=20078571 }}

Maimonides (c. 1135–1204) was a Jewish philosopher and astronomer,Maimonides: Abū ʿImrān Mūsā [Moses] ibn ʿUbayd Allāh [Maymūn] al-Qurṭubī [http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Maimonides_BEA.htm] who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars and physicians.[http://www.med.uottawa.ca/historyofmedicine/hetenyi/levinoff.htm A Biographical and Historiographical Critique of Moses Maimonides] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524172551/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/historyofmedicine/hetenyi/levinoff.htm |date=24 May 2013 }} He writes that happiness is ultimately and essentially intellectual.{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/maimonid/|title=Maimonides – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|website=utm.edu}}

{{rquote|right|Man is not perfectly happy, so long as something remains for him to desire and seek.|St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica}}

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274 AD) was a philosopher and theologian who became a Doctor of the Church in 1323.{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=2530|title=St. Thomas Aquinas|author=Catholic Online|work=catholic.org}} He syncretized Aristotelianism and Catholic theology in his magnum opus Summa Theologica.{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/aq-moral/|title=Aquinas: Moral Philosophy – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|work=utm.edu}}

According to Thomas Aquinas, perfect happiness cannot be found in any physical pleasure, any amount of worldly power, any degree of temporal fame or honor, or indeed in any finite reality. {{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/summa/2002.htm#article8|title=Summa Theologica: Things in which man's happiness consists (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 2, a. 8)|website=www.newadvent.org}} It can only be found in something that is infinite and perfect – and this is God.{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/summa/2003.htm#article8|title=Summa Theologica: What is happiness (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 3, a. 8)|website=www.newadvent.org}} And since God is not a material thing but is pure spirit, we are united to God by knowing and loving Him. Consequently, the union with God is the most perfect human happiness and the ultimate goal of human life.{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/summa/1012.htm#article4|title=Summa Theologica: How God is known by us (Prima Pars, Q. 12, a. 4)|website=www.newadvent.org}}

Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) was a French philosopher. Influenced by Hellenistic philosophy and Christianity, alongside the conviction of the separation of public and private spheres of life, Montaigne writes that happiness is a subjective state of mind and that satisfaction differs from person to person.{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/montaign/|title=Montaigne, Michel de – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|work=utm.edu}} He continues by acknowledging that one must be allowed a private sphere of life to realize those particular attempts of happiness without the interference of society.

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) was a British philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism.

The right course of action, according to Jeremy Bentham, is that which causes the highest amount of utility, where utility is defined as the aggregate pleasure (happiness) minus any suffering (pain) of each individual affected by the action.{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/bentham/|title=Bentham, Jeremy – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|work=utm.edu}} For the purpose of calculating utility of a given action, he devised Felicific calculus.

According to this calculus, for example, ascetic sacrifice is morally wrong.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) was a German philosopher. His philosophy express that egotistical acts are those that are guided by self-interest, desire for pleasure or happiness, whereas only compassion can be a moral act.

Schopenhauer explains happiness in terms of a wish that is satisfied, which in turn gives rise to a new wish. And the absence of satisfaction is suffering, which results in an empty longing. He also links happiness with the movement of time, as we feel happy when time moves faster and feel sad when time slows down.Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Idea. Cologne 1997, Volume One, §52th.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was a German philosopher, poet, cultural critic, and philologist whose work has exerted a profound influence on contemporary philosophy.

Nietzsche critiqued the English Utilitarians' focus on attaining the greatest happiness, stating that "Man does not strive for happiness, only the Englishman does".{{Cite book |last=Nietzsche |first=Friedrich |title=Twilight of the Idols |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=1889 |isbn=978-0140445145 |pages=1 |language=English}} Nietzsche meant that making happiness one's ultimate goal and the aim of one's existence, in his words "makes one contemptible." Nietzsche instead yearned for a culture that would set higher, more difficult goals than "mere happiness." He introduced the quasi-dystopic figure of the "last man" as a kind of thought experiment against the utilitarians and happiness-seekers.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche-moral-political/|title=Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy|encyclopedia=stanford.edu|access-date=10 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112064629/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche-moral-political/|archive-date=12 January 2012|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–2004)|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/nietzsch/|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=10 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815204318/http://www.iep.utm.edu/nietzsch/|archive-date=15 August 2015|url-status=dead}}

These "small men" who seek after only their own pleasure and health, avoiding all danger, exertion, difficulty, challenge, and struggle are contemptible. Nietzsche instead wants us to consider the value of what is difficult, what can only be earned through struggle, difficulty, and pain. He wants us to consider the affirmative value of suffering and unhappiness which create everything of great worth in life, including all the highest achievements of human culture, not least of all philosophy.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche-moral-political/|title=Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy|encyclopedia=stanford.edu|access-date=10 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112064629/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche-moral-political/|archive-date=12 January 2012|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–2004)|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/nietzsch/|website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=10 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150815204318/http://www.iep.utm.edu/nietzsch/|archive-date=15 August 2015|url-status=dead}}

Władysław Tatarkiewicz (1886–1980) was a Polish philosopher and historian.

For Tatarkiewicz, happiness is a fundamental ethical category and true happiness requires total satisfaction, that is, satisfaction with life as a whole.Alex Michalos [https://www.proquest.com/openview/6b042353db50565f7e667978915d1ae3/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1818345 Review of W. Tatarkiewicz, "Analysis of Happiness".]

Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979) was a German-American philosopher, sociologist, and political theorist, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory.

In his 1937 essay 'The Affirmative Character of Culture,' he suggests culture develops tension within the structure of society, and in that tension can challenge the current social order. If it separates itself from the everyday world, the demand for happiness will cease to be external, and begin to become an object of spiritual contemplation.{{cite book|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marcuse/|title=Herbert Marcuse|website=stanford.edu|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|year=2017}} In the One-Dimensional Man, his criticism of consumerism suggests that the current system is one that claims to be democratic, but is authoritarian in character, as only a few individuals dictate the perceptions of freedom by only allowing certain choices of happiness to be available for purchase.{{cite book | last1 = Marcuse | first1 = Herbert | title = One-dimensional Man: studies in ideology of advanced industrial society | chapter = Introduction to the Second Edition | publisher = Routledge | year = 1991 | location = London | page = 3 | isbn = 978-0-415-07429-2 }} He further suggests that the conception that 'happiness can be bought' is one that is psychologically damaging.

{{rquote|right|It is a characteristic of the American culture that, again and again, one is commanded and ordered to 'be happy.' But happiness cannot be pursued; it must ensue. One must have a reason to 'be happy'.|Viktor Frankl{{cite news |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/a-lesson-about-happiness-from-a-holocaust-survivor-2014-10 |title=A Psychiatrist Who Survived The Holocaust Explains Why Meaningfulness Matters More Than Happiness |date=22 October 2014 |work=Business Insider |first1=Emily Esfahani |last1=Smith |agency=The Atlantic }}}}

Viktor Frankl (1905–1997) was an Austrian neurologist, psychiatrist, Holocaust survivor and founder of logotherapy. His philosophy revolved around the emphasis on meaning, the value of suffering, and responsibility to something greater than the self; only if one encounters those questions can one be happy.

Robert Nozick (1938–2002) was an American philosopher and professor at Harvard University. He is best known for his political philosophy and for his thought experiments.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/nozick/ |title=Nozick, Robert |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Edward |last=Feser |date=4 May 2005}}

In the Experience Machine (1974) thought experiment he criticizes hedonistic notions of happiness by imagining a choice between everyday reality and an apparently preferable simulated reality which provides unlimited enjoyment.{{cite book | last = Nozick | first = Robert | title = Anarchy, state, and utopia | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | year = 1974 | isbn = 0-465-09720-0 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/anarchystateutop00nozi/page/42 42–45] | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/anarchystateutop00nozi/page/42 }}

The utility monster (1974) is a thought experiment created by Robert Nozick to criticize utilitarian notion of aggregate pleasure (happiness).{{cite book|title=Thought Experiments: Popular Thought Experiments in Philosophy, Physics, Ethics, Computer Science & Mathematics|date=March 20, 2015|publisher=AMF|isbn=9781329003422|edition=First|page=322|last1=Kennard|first1=Frederick}}

Michel Onfray (born 1959) is a French writer and philosopher with a hedonistic, epicurean, and atheist worldview.

In La puissance d'exister: Manifeste hédoniste, Onfray claims that the political dimension of hedonism runs from Epicurus to John Stuart Mill to Jeremy Bentham and Claude Adrien Helvétius. Political hedonism aims to create the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers. Onfray defines hedonism "as an introspective attitude to life based on taking pleasure yourself and pleasuring others, without harming yourself or anyone else."{{cite web|url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/1421|title=Atheism à la mode – New Humanist|website=newhumanist.org.uk|date=29 June 2007 }}

David Pearce (born 1959) is a British transhumanist philosopher who approaches ethical issues from a lexical negative utilitarian perspective. Pearce argues that a universe where all beings experience joy and fulfillment cannot be morally worse than the current one. He presents a case for abolishing suffering through a biological hedonist program, which aligns with utilitarian goals of maximizing happiness.{{cite web |last1=Schneider |first1=Susan |title=Future Minds: Transhumanism, Cognitive Enhancement and the Nature of Persons |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=neuroethics_pubs |access-date=29 September 2022 |website=Penn Libraries |publisher=University of Pennsylvania}}{{cite journal |last1=Dobrodum |first1=Olga |last2=Kyvliuk |first2=Olga |date=2021-01-29 |title=Transhumanism and Posthumanism: Reflection of the Human Civilization Future |url=http://ispcjournal.org/journals/2021/01/PhC_26_DobrodumKyvliuk.pdf |journal=Philosophy and Cosmology |volume=26 |pages=77–89 |doi=10.29202/phil-cosm/26/6 |s2cid=234292838 |access-date=29 September 2022}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.utilitarianism.com/nu/nufaq.html|title=Negative Utilitarianism FAQ|website=www.utilitarianism.com|access-date=2019-09-14}}{{cite web |author=David Pearce |title=The Hedonistic Imperative |url=https://www.hedweb.com/hedethic/hedon2.htm#alone |website=Hedweb |accessdate=15 January 2025}}

{{Portal|Philosophy}}

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• Affective neuroscience
• Eudaimonia
• Happiness
• Happiness economics
• Philosophical optimism
• Philosophical pessimism
• Positive psychology
• Religion and happiness
• Self-fulfillment

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{{Reflist}}

• 14th Dalai Lama, co-authored with Howard C. Cutler, The Art of Happiness, 2003.
• Jonathan Haidt, The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom, 2006.

{{Sister project links|Happiness}}

• [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/happiness/ Happiness], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University

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Category:Happiness

Category:Belief

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Category:Philosophy of life