Polyandry in India

Section 494 and 495 of the Indian Penal Code of 1860, prohibited polygamy for the Christians. In 1955, the Hindu Marriage Act was drafted, which prohibited marriage of a Hindu whose spouse was still living. Thus polygamy became illegal in India in 1956.[https://books.google.com/books?id=XFtcAgAAQBAJ&q=india+polygamy+law&pg=PA189 Modern Indian Family Law, Werner Menski, Routledge, 2013 p. 194] {{ISBN?}}

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Polyandry is in practice in many villages of Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. Fraternal polyandry (where husbands are related to each other) is mainly in practice in villages, where the societies are male dominated and which still follow ancient rituals and customs.

There are many forms of polyandry which can be found here. Most often, all the brothers are married to a woman and sometimes the marriage to brothers happens at a later date. The wife can only ascertain the blood-relationship of the children, though recently there have been a few instances of paternity tests using DNA samples to resolve inheritance disputes. The rules for breaking the marriage are strict and a brother going against the marriage agreement can be treated as an outcast while losing his entire share in the property.{{Cite journal|last1=Negi|first1=Sunder Kala|last2=Singh|first2=Hoshiar|date=2014|title=Marital Satisfaction and Well Being among Fraternal Polyandrous and Monogamous Tribal People of Kinnaur|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331816023|journal=Irc's International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research in Social & Management Sciences|volume=2|issue=4|pages=47–57}}

Historically, fraternal polyandry has been practiced by wealthier families, associated with a higher caste, in Kinnaur as a way to keep wealth within one family. This allowed for land to be properly inherited and kept in one family. It was assurance that the land and wealth held by one family could not be partitioned. Those in lower castes also practiced fraternal polyandry if they had a larger amount of land.{{Cite journal |last=Aghaghia |first=Rahimzadeh |date=October 2020 |title=Fraternal Polyandry and Land Ownership in Kinnaur, Western Himalaya |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2473341683 |journal=Human Ecology |volume=48 |issue=5 |page=574 |id={{ProQuest|2473341683}} |via=Proquest}}

The territory of Kinnaur remained forbidden for many years as the land route was only established 30 years ago. The joint families are now fragmented into nuclear families. The level of economies and financial resources have transformed the life of the people of Kinnaur into city.{{Cite journal|last1=Gautam|first1=Rajesh K|last2=Kshatriya|first2=Gautam K|title=Polyandry: A Case Study of Kinnauras|url=https://www.academia.edu/4466645|journal=Indian Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=30|issue=1–2|date=2011|pages=146–161}}

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File:Toda men women 1871.jpg men and a woman. Nilgiri Hills, 1871.]]

Todas are tribal people residing in the Nilgiri hills (Tamil Nadu) in South India who for several centuries practiced polyandry.{{Cite news| last=Anthony R Walker| author-link=Oliver Cowdery| title=The truth about the Todas| newspaper=Frontline| volume=21| issue=5| date=28 February – 12 March 2004| url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2105/stories/20040312000206600.htm| url-status=usurped| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013183019/http://hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2105/stories/20040312000206600.htm| archive-date=13 October 2007| df=dmy-all}} They practiced a form of polyandrous relationship which is considered to be a classic example of polyandry. They practiced both fraternal and sequential polyandry.

The men who shared one or two wives were not always full or half-brothers.{{cite book | title=Evolution and Human Kinship| last=Austin L. Hughes| year= 1988| publisher=OUP USA| isbn=978-0-19-505234-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5g9002yyTW8C&q=Evolution+and+human+kinship&pg=PP1|page=101 }} A Toda woman when married was automatically married to her husband's brothers.{{cite book | title=Families in Global and Multicultural Perspective| last=Bron B. Ingoldsby and Suzanna D. Smith| year=2005| publisher=Sage Publications, Inc| isbn=978-0-7619-2819-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UR3HhhtRy3gC&q=Families+in+global+and+multicultural+perspective|page=104 }} When the wife became pregnant, one husband would ceremonially give a bow and arrow to the wife, and would be the father of that child. When the next child arrived, same husband who performed that ceremony continues to be called father even though child is not biologically related to him, unless another husband would perform the ceremony and become the father.[https://archive.org/details/todas00rivegoog The Todas by William Halse Rivers Rivers].{{clarify|date=February 2017}}

Polyandry and polygamy were prevalent in Kerala till the late 19th century and isolated cases were reported until the mid-20th century. Castes practicing polyandry were Nairs, Thiyyas, Kammalar, and Mukkuvar of Kerala {{cite book |title=Matrilineal Kinship |editor1-first=David Murray |editor1-last=Schneider |editor2-first=E. Kathleen |editor2-last=Gough |chapter=Nayars: Central Kerala |first=E. Kathleen |last=Gough |authorlink=Kathleen Gough |page=412 |year=1961 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-02529-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qiRL3rnCVfAC&dq=tiyyar+polygamy&pg=PA412}}{{Cite book|last=Hardgrave|first=Robert L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZ9mqiLgkdEC|title=The Nadars of Tamilnad|publisher=University of California Press|language=en}}A Study of Polyandry – Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark (1963) The Hague: Moulton. Open Library ID OL15135517M. p. 159.Polyandry in India: Demographic, economic, social, religious, and psychological concomitants of plural marriages in women - Manis Kumar Raha and Palash Chandra Coomar (1987) Gian Pub. House. {{ISBN|81-212-0105-5}}. p. 432.{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=limC6vCMYnMC |title = Polyandry in Ancient India|isbn = 9788120804876|last1 = Singh|first1 = Sarva Daman|year = 1988| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. }}074531693{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xNAI9F8IBOgC&pg=PA38 |title = Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia|isbn = 9004045104|last1 = Smith|first1 = Bardwell L.|year = 1976| publisher=Brill }}{{Cite book|last=Mann|first=Rann Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fuxv9_upHpYC&q=Polyandry+of+thiyya&pg=PA16|title=Aspects of Indian Social Anthropology|date=1996|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-586-7|language=en}} Historians assert that there exists no authenticated case of polyandry among the Nairs. The evidence presented for such a custom during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries primarily stems from accounts provided by foreign travelers who were prohibited from approaching within sixty yards of a Nair's residence. Consequently, their testimonies offer an exceedingly unsatisfactory basis for definitive conclusions regarding Nair customs. Conversely, the extensive Malayalam literature on the subject provides a more nuanced and culturally informed perspective.{{Cite journal |last=Panikkar |first=K. M. |date=July 1918 |title=Some Aspects of Nayar Life. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2843423 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=48 |pages=254–293 |doi=10.2307/2843423|jstor=2843423 }}

In the case of polyandry, a man's property is inherited by his sister's children and not his own.[https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette18huntgoog/page/n94 The imperial gazetteer of India by William Wilson Hunter]. Under a polyandrous system, the only verifiable blood-relationships could be ascertained through females.{{cite journal | last = H. W. H. | title = Primitive Marriage| journal = Science| volume = 7 | issue = 158| pages = 147–149| publisher = American Association for the Advancement of Science | date = 12 February 1886| jstor = 1760231 | doi = 10.1126/science.ns-7.158S.147 | pmid = 17759687| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1618824}} However, polyandry is a contested issue with opinion divided between those who support its existence{{cite journal| last = A. Aiyappan| title = Nayar Polyandry| journal = Man | volume = 32| pages = 78–79| publisher = Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland | date = March 1932| jstor =2790087}}{{cite journal| last = L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer| title = Nayar Polyandry | journal = Man | volume = 32| pages = 269–270| publisher = Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland | date = November 1932| jstor = 2790609}} and those who do not.{{cite journal| last1 = Opler | first1 = Marvin K. | title = Woman's Social Status and the Forms of Marriage | journal = American Journal of Sociology| volume = 49| issue = 2| pages = 125–148| publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = September 1943| jstor = 2770359| doi = 10.1086/219347| s2cid = 143509766 }} Ezhavas, Mukkuvas, Kammalars of Kerala also practised polyandry. The custom of fraternal polyandry was common among Thiyyas of Malabar and ezhavas. According to Cyriac Pullipally, female members of the Thiyya, ezhava, and mukkuvas community associated with English, French, Dutch, and Portuguese men as their concubines.{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Bardwell L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xNAI9F8IBOgC&q=polyandry|title=Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia|date=1976|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-04510-1|page=34|language=en}}

In certain areas of Punjab, especially the Bathinda and Mansa districts of Malwa region, poor farmers follow the practice of polyandry under economic compulsion to avoid further fragmentation of their already small landholdings. A study conducted in 2019 by Panjab University found evidence of polyandry in Haryana and Punjab. The study culminated in the book Gender Culture and Honour and found cases of wife sharing in the districts of Yamunanagar in Haryana and Mansa and Fatehgarh Sahib of Punjab.{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/modern-draupadis-exist-in-mansa-villages/articleshow/7847515.cms | title=Modern Draupadis exist in Mansa villages | website=The Times of India | date=2 April 2011 }}

Polyandry was practised in Jaunsar-Bawar in Uttarakhand.{{cite news|title=The mystique of the mountains |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2024/stories/20031205000106600.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061111114506/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2024/stories/20031205000106600.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-date=11 November 2006|work=Frontline|date=November–December 2003}} A distinct group of people called Paharis live in the lower ranges of Himalayas in Northern India from southeastern Kashmir all the way through Nepal. Polyandry has been reported among these people in many districts but studied in great detail in Jaunsar-Bawar. It is a region in Dehradun district in Uttarakhand. The practice is believed to have descended from their ancestors who had earlier settled down in the plains from Himalayas.{{cite book | title=Polygamy: A Cross-Cultural Analysis| last=Miriam Koktvedgaard Zeitzen| year= 2008| publisher=Berg Publishers| isbn=978-1-84520-221-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIzHjpTJgdQC&q=Polygamy+Miriam+Koktvedgaard+Zeitzen|page=109 }}

Polyandrous union occurs in this region when a woman marries the eldest son in a family. The woman automatically becomes the wife of all his brothers upon her marriage. The brothers can be married to more than one woman if the first woman was sterile or if the age difference of the brothers were large. The wife is shared equally by all brothers and no one in the group has exclusive privilege to the wife. The woman considers all the men in the group her husband and the children recognise them all as their father.{{cite journal| last1 = Berreman | first1 = Gerald D. | title = Pahari Polyandry: A Comparison| journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 64| issue = 1| pages = 60–75| year = 1962| doi = 10.1525/aa.1962.64.1.02a00070| doi-access = free}}{{cite journal| last1 = Berreman| first1 = Gerald D. | title = Himalayan Polyandry and the Domestic Cycle| journal = American Ethnologist | volume = 2| issue = 1| pages = 127–138| publisher = Blackwell Publishing, on behalf of the American Anthropological Association | date = February 1975| jstor =643539| doi = 10.1525/ae.1975.2.1.02a00070| doi-access = free}}

By 1976, 83.3% of Tibetans who were exiled from China had taken refuge in India.{{Cite book |last1=Sachdeva |first1=Swati Ashkay |title=Identity in Question: The Study of Tibetan Refugees in the Indian Himalayas |last2=Surjyajeevan |first2=Yumnam |publisher=Vernon Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781622739127 |location=Wilmington, DE |page=33}} In Tibet, monogamy, polygamy, and polyandry have traditionally been practiced. Some Tibetan refugees now settled in India practice polyandry as a result of their material conditions.{{Cite book |last=Grent |first=Nellie |title=Polyandry in Dharamsala: Plural-Husband Marriage in a Tibetan Refugee Community in Northwest India |year=2002 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004489455 |pages=105–106}} Fraternal polyandry is a way for Tibetans to avoid having to build multiple houses every time a male in the family marries. One wife married to many brothers allows for less resources to be used on one brother and his one wife. Polyandry is also a way for Tibetans to not have to marry non-Tibetans whilst they are settled in India.{{Cite journal |last=Tanka |first=Subba B. |date=1988 |title=Social Adaptation of the Tibetan Refugees in the Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43301058 |journal=The Tibet Journal |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=49–57 |jstor=43301058 }}

File:Polyandry (bold, color).svg

Fraternal polyandry exists among the Khasa of Dehradun; the Mala Madessar, the Mavilan, etc. of Kerala and among the Sirmur, Shimla, Kullu, and Lahaul-Spiti of Himachal Pradesh. Non-fraternal polyandry exists among the Kota; and among the Karvazhi, Pulaya, Muthuvan, and Mannan in Kerala.

In the 1911 Census of India, E.A. Gait mentions polyandry of the Bhotias, Kanets of Kulu valley, people of state of Bashahr, Thakkars and Megs of Kashmir, Gonds of Central Provinces, Todas and Kurumbas of Nilgiris, Kallars of Madurai, Tolkolans of Malabar, Ezhavas, Kaniyans and Kammalans of Cochin, Muduvas of Travancore and of Nairs.[https://books.google.com/books?id=8UZF-ckLEnYC&dq=polyandry+Jaunsar+Bawar&pg=PA165 Polyandry in Ancient India by Sarva Daman Singh]{{cite book|title=Madura, a Tourist's Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xANOL3bu5YC&q=polyandry+kallar&pg=PA165|isbn=9788120607064|year=1913| publisher=Asian Educational Services }}

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• Manis Kumar Raha & Palash Chandra Coomar : Polyandry in India. Gian Publishing House, Delhi, 1987. {{ISBN?}}

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