Problematic social media use#Molly Russell case

Signs of social media addiction or excessive use of social media include many behaviours similar to substance use disorders, including mood modification, salience, tolerance, stress withdrawal symptoms, psychological distress, anxiety and depression, conflict, and relapse, and low self esteem.{{cite journal |last1=Vogel |first1=Erin A. |last2=Rose |first2=Jason P. |last3=Roberts |first3=Lindsay R. |last4=Eckles |first4=Katheryn |date=October 2014 |title=Social comparison, social media, and self-esteem. |journal=Psychology of Popular Media Culture |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=206–222 |doi=10.1037/ppm0000047}}{{cite journal |last1=Marino |first1=Claudia |last2=Gini |first2=Gianluca |last3=Vieno |first3=Alessio |last4=Spada |first4=Marcantonio M. |title=The associations between problematic Facebook use, psychological distress and well-being among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |date=January 2018 |volume=226 |pages=274–281 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2017.10.007 |pmid=29024900 |url=http://researchopen.lsbu.ac.uk/1483/1/Marino%2C%20C.%20et%20al.%20The%20associations%20between%20problematic%20Facebook%20use%2C%20psychological%20distress%20and%20well-being%20among%20adolescents%20and%20young%20adults.docx }}Shannon H, Bush K, Villeneuve PJ, Hellemans KG, Guimond S Problematic Social Media Use in Adolescents and Young Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis JMIR Ment Health 2022;9(4):e33450 https://mental.jmir.org/2022/4/e33450{{cite journal|last1=Hoge|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Bickham|first2=David|last3=Cantor|first3=Joanne|title=Digital Media, Anxiety, and Depression in Children|journal=Pediatrics|date=1 November 2017|volume=140|issue=Supplement 2|pages=S76–S80|doi=10.1542/peds.2016-1758G|pmid=29093037|s2cid=207168112|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Reid Chassiakos |first1=Yolanda (Linda) |last2=Radesky |first2=Jenny |last3=Christakis |first3=Dimitri |last4=Moreno |first4=Megan A. |last5=Cross |first5=Corinn |last6=Hill |first6=David |last7=Ameenuddin |first7=Nusheen |last8=Hutchinson |first8=Jeffrey |last9=Levine |first9=Alanna |last10=Boyd |first10=Rhea |last11=Mendelson |first11=Robert |last12=Swanson |first12=Wendy Sue |date=November 2016 |title=Children and Adolescents and Digital Media |journal=Pediatrics |volume=138 |issue=5 |doi=10.1542/peds.2016-2593 |pmid=27940795 |doi-access=free}} People with problematic social media habits are at risk of being addicted and may require more time on social media as time passes.{{Cite journal |last1=Pellegrino |first1=Alfonso |last2=Stasi |first2=Alessandro |last3=Bhatiasevi |first3=Veera |date=2022-11-10 |title=Research trends in social media addiction and problematic social media use: A bibliometric analysis |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1017506 |pmc=9707397 |pmid=36458122 |doi-access=free}} Frequent social media use may also be associated self-reported symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.{{Cite web|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-children-and-adolescents-clinical-features-and-diagnosis?sectionName=Diagnosis%20in%20adolescents#H830607539|title=UpToDate|access-date=2019-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308003020/https://www.uptodate.com/contents/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-children-and-adolescents-clinical-features-and-diagnosis?sectionName=Diagnosis%20in%20adolescents#H830607539|archive-date=2019-03-08|url-status = live}}

Social anxiety (or fear of missing out) is another potential symptom. Social anxiety is defined as having intense anxiety or fear of being judged, negatively evaluated, or rejected in a social or performance situation.{{Cite web |title=Social Anxiety Disorder | Anxiety and Depression Association of America, ADAA |url=https://adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/social-anxiety-disorder}}{{cite journal |last1=High |first1=Andrew C. |last2=Caplan |first2=Scott E. |date=March 2009 |title=Social anxiety and computer-mediated communication during initial interactions: Implications for the hyperpersonal perspective |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=475–482 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2008.10.011}}{{cite journal |last1=Galica |first1=Victoria L. |last2=Vannucci |first2=Anna |last3=Flannery |first3=Kaitlin M. |last4=Ohannessian |first4=Christine McCauley |date=July 2017 |title=Social Media Use and Conduct Problems in Emerging Adults |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=448–452 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2017.0068 |pmid=28715261}} The fear of missing out can contribute to excessive usage due to frequent checking the media constantly throughout the day to check in and see what others are doing instead of doing other activities.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

Displacement, or replacing meaningful other activities with social media,{{Cite news |last=Network |first=The Learning |date=2023-11-30 |title=What's Going On in This Graph? {{!}} Teens and Social Media |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/30/learning/whats-going-on-in-this-graph-dec-6-2023.html |access-date=2024-02-09 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}} and loneliness{{cite journal |last1=O'Day |first1=E. B. |last2=Heimberg |first2=R. G. |date=2021 |title=Social media use, social anxiety, and loneliness: A systematic review |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=3 |page=100070 |doi=10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100070 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Pezzi |first1=Mattia |last2=Corsano |first2=Paola |last3=Santoro |first3=Gianluca |last4=Gori |first4=Alessio |last5=Gamez-Guadix |first5=Manuel |last6=Musetti |first6=Alessandro |date=2024 |title=Solitary Experience and Problematic Social Media Use Among Young Adults: A Systematic Review with Recommendations for Future Research |journal=Clinical Neuropsychiatry |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=284–298 |doi=10.36131/cnfioritieditore20240405 |pmc=11411510 |pmid=39309023}} are common signs.

There are many theories for the mechanism or cause behind a person having problematic social media use.{{cite journal |last1=Turel |first1=Ofir |last2=Serenko |first2=Alexander |date=September 2012 |title=The benefits and dangers of enjoyment with social networking websites |journal=European Journal of Information Systems |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=512–528 |doi=10.1057/ejis.2012.1}} The transition from normal to problematic social media use occurs when a person relies on it to relieve stress, loneliness, depression, or provide continuous rewards.{{Cite web |last1=Xu |first1=H. |last2=Tan |first2=B.C.Y. |date=2012 |title=Why do i keep checking Facebook: Effects of message characteristics on the formation of social network services addiction |url=http://elibrary.aisnet.org/Default.aspx?url=http://aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1216&context=icis2012 |website=Association for Information Systems |location=Behavioral Addictions: Chapter 6 - Social Networking Addiction: An Overview of Preliminary Findings}}

1. Cognitive-behavioral model – People increase their use of social media when they are in unfamiliar environments or awkward situations;
2. Social skill model – People pull out their phones and use social media when they prefer virtual communication as opposed to face-to-face interactions because they lack self-presentation skills;
3. Socio-cognitive model – This person uses social media because they love the feeling of people liking and commenting on their photos and tagging them in pictures. They are attracted to the positive outcomes they receive on social media.

There are parallels to the gambling industry inherent to the design of various social media sites, with "'ludic loops' or repeated cycles of uncertainty, anticipation and feedback" potentially contributing to problematic social media use.{{Cite web|title=Social media copies gambling methods 'to create psychological cravings'|url=https://ihpi.umich.edu/news/social-media-copies-gambling-methods-create-psychological-cravings|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701123846/https://ihpi.umich.edu/news/social-media-copies-gambling-methods-create-psychological-cravings|archive-date=2019-07-01|access-date=2019-07-01|work=Institute for Healthcare Policy & Innovation}} Another factor directly facilitating the development of addiction to social media is the implicit attitude toward the IT artifact.{{cite journal|last1=Turel|first1=Ofir|last2=Serenko|first2=Alexander|date=June 2020|title=Cognitive biases and excessive use of social media: The facebook implicit associations test (FIAT)|journal=Addictive Behaviors|volume=105|pages=106328|doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106328|pmid=32058236|s2cid=211111033}} Social media use may also stimulate the reward pathway in the brain.{{Cite web |date=2018-05-01 |title=Dopamine, Smartphones & You: A battle for your time |url=http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2018/dopamine-smartphones-battle-time/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630214732/http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2018/dopamine-smartphones-battle-time/ |archive-date=2019-06-30 |access-date=2019-07-01 |website=Science in the News}}

There is also a theory that social media addiction fulfills a basic evolutionary drives in the wake of mass urbanization worldwide. The basic psychological needs of "secure, predictable community life that evolved over millions of years" remain unchanged, leading some to find online communities to cope with the new individualized way of life in some modern societies.{{cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=Mark D. |title=Behavioral Addictions |last2=Kuss |first2=Daria J. |last3=Demetrovics |first3=Zsolt |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-12-407724-9 |pages=119–141 |chapter=Social Networking Addiction |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-407724-9.00006-9}}

The “Evolutionary Mismatch” hypothesis holds that modern digital platforms amplify social competition and comparison in ways our ancestors never faced, possibly triggering maladaptive patterns such as anxiety, depression, or compulsive use. Similarly, some scholars compare social media to “junk food”:{{Cite book |last=Nesse |first=Randolph M. |title=Good reasons for bad feelings: insights from the frontier of evolutionary psychiatry |date=2020 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-198491-9 |location=London |pages=173–179}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Adam |last2=Merola |first2=Giuseppe Pierpaolo |last3=Carpenter |first3=Tom |last4=Jaeggi |first4=Adrian V. |date=2024-04-01 |title=Evolutionary perspectives on substance and behavioural addictions: Distinct and shared pathways to understanding, prediction and prevention |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0149763424000721 |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |volume=159 |pages=105603 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105603 |pmid=38402919 |issn=0149-7634|doi-access=free }}

The approach taken to develop social media platforms may contribute to problematic social media use.{{cite journal |last1=Montag |first1=Christian |last2=Lachmann |first2=Bernd |last3=Herrlich |first3=Marc |last4=Zweig |first4=Katharina |title=Addictive Features of Social Media/Messenger Platforms and Freemium Games against the Background of Psychological and Economic Theories |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |date=23 July 2019 |volume=16 |issue=14 |pages=2612 |doi=10.3390/ijerph16142612 |pmc=6679162 |pmid=31340426 |doi-access=free}} The ability to scroll and stream content endlessly and how app developers distort time by affecting the 'flow' of content when scrolling,{{cite book |last1=Csikszentmihalyi |first1=Mihaly |title=Flow: The Classic Work on how to Achieve Happiness |date=2002 |publisher=Rider |isbn=978-0-7126-5759-4 |oclc=49871965}}{{page needed|date=December 2024}} potentially resulting in the Zeigarnik effect (the human brain will continue to pursue an unfinished task until a satisfying closure.{{cite journal |last1=Peifer |first1=Corinna |last2=Zipp |first2=Gina |date=3 September 2019 |title=All at once? The effects of multitasking behavior on flow and subjective performance |journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=682–690 |doi=10.1080/1359432X.2019.1647168}} Autoplay modes, the personalized nature of the content results in emotional attachment (ie, the user values this above its actual value, which is referred to as the endowment effect{{cite journal |last1=Kahneman |first1=Daniel |last2=Knetsch |first2=Jack L |last3=Thaler |first3=Richard H |date=February 1991 |title=Anomalies: The Endowment Effect, Loss Aversion, and Status Quo Bias |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=193–206 |doi=10.1257/jep.5.1.193 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Loewenstein |first1=George |last2=Adler |first2=Daniel |date=1995 |title=A Bias in the Prediction of Tastes |journal=The Economic Journal |volume=105 |issue=431 |pages=929–937 |doi=10.2307/2235159 |jstor=2235159}}{{Cite journal |last1=Montag |first1=Christian |last2=Hegelich |first2=Simon |date=2020 |title=Understanding Detrimental Aspects of Social Media Use: Will the Real Culprits Please Stand Up? |journal=Frontiers in Sociology |language=English |volume=5 |page=599270 |doi=10.3389/fsoc.2020.599270 |issn=2297-7775 |pmc=8022744 |pmid=33869524 |doi-access=free}}), and the exposure effect (repeated exposure to a distinct stimulus by the user can condition the user into an enhanced or improved attitude toward it).{{cite journal |last1=Zajonc |first1=R.B. |date=December 2001 |title=Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=224–228 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00154}} The interactive nature of the platforms, including the ability to "like" content has also been linked.

Even though social media can satisfy personal communication needs, those who use it at higher rates are shown to have higher levels of psychological distress.{{cite journal |last1=Menon |first1=Indu S. |last2=Sharma |first2=Manoj Kumar |last3=Chandra |first3=Prabha S. |last4=Thennarasu |first4=K. |date=July 2014 |title=Social Networking Sites: An Adjunctive Treatment Modality for Psychological Problems |journal=Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=260–263 |doi=10.4103/0253-7176.135374 |pmc=4100410 |pmid=25035548 |doi-access=free}}

While there is no official diagnostic term or measurement, problematic social media use is conceptualized as a non-substance-related disorder, resulting in preoccupation and compulsion to engage excessively in social media platforms despite negative consequences.{{cite journal |last1=Yoon |first1=Sunkyung |last2=Kleinman |first2=Mary |last3=Mertz |first3=Jessica |last4=Brannick |first4=Michael |date=April 2019 |title=Is social network site usage related to depression? A meta-analysis of Facebook–depression relations |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |volume=248 |pages=65–72 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2019.01.026 |pmid=30711871 |s2cid=73414136}} No diagnosis exists for problematic social media use in either the ICD-11 or DSM-5. Excessive use of an activity, like social media, does not directly equate with addiction. There are other factors that could lead to someone's social media addiction including personality traits and pre-existing tendencies. While the extent of social media use and addiction are positively correlated, it is erroneous to employ use (the degree to which one makes use of the site’s features, the effort exerted during use sessions, access frequency, etc.) as a proxy for addiction.{{cite journal |last1=Serenko |first1=Alexander |last2=Turel |first2=Ofir |date=2022 |title= Directing Technology Addiction Research in Information Systems: Part II. Understanding Technology Addiction|url=https://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Turel_Database_Addiction_2.pdf |journal= ACM SIGMIS Database: The Database for Advances in Information Systems|volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=71–90 |doi=10.1145/3551783.3551789}} Indicators of a potential dependence on social media include:{{cite journal |last1=Guedes |first1=Eduardo |last2=Nardi |first2=Antonio Egidio |last3=Guimarães |first3=Flávia Melo Campos Leite |last4=Machado |first4=Sergio |last5=King |first5=Anna Lucia Spear |date=23 November 2015 |title=Social networking, a new online addiction: a review of Facebook and other addiction disorders |journal=MedicalExpress |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.5935/MedicalExpress.2016.01.01 |doi-access=free}}

1. Mood swings: a person uses social media to regulate his or her mood, or as a means of escaping real world conflicts
2. Relevance: social media starts to dominate a person's thoughts at the expense of other activities
3. Tolerance: a person increases their time spent on social media to experience previously associated feelings they had while using social media;
4. Withdrawal: when a person can not access social media their sleeping or eating habits change or signs of depression or anxiety can become present.
5. Conflicts in real life: when social media is used excessively, it can affect real-life relationships with family and friends.

Additional criteria include:

1. Salience: social media becomes the most important part of someone's life;
2. Mood modification: a person uses social media as a means of escape because it makes them feel "high", "buzzed", or "numb";
3. Tolerance: a person gradually increases their time spent on social media to maintain that escapist feeling;
4. Withdrawal: unpleasant feelings or physical sensations when the person is unable to use social media or does not have access to it;
5. Conflict: social media use causes conflict in interpersonal dynamics, loses desire to participate in other activities, and becomes pervasive;
6. Relapse: the tendency for previously affected individuals to revert to previous patterns of excessive social media use.

There have been several scales developed and validated that help to understand the issues regarding problematic social media use.{{cite journal |last1=Ellison |first1=Nicole B. |last2=Steinfield |first2=Charles |last3=Lampe |first3=Cliff |date=July 2007 |title=The Benefits of Facebook 'Friends:' Social Capital and College Students' Use of Online Social Network Sites |journal=Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=1143–1168 |doi=10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Orosz |first1=Gábor |last2=Tóth-Király |first2=István |last3=Bőthe |first3=Beáta |date=October 2016 |title=Four facets of Facebook intensity — The development of the Multidimensional Facebook Intensity Scale |url=http://real.mtak.hu/42248/1/1-s2.0-S0191886915300593-main%20%285%29.pdf |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=100 |pages=95–104 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.038}}{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Jibin |last2=Lau |first2=Joseph T. F. |last3=Mo |first3=Phoenix K. H. |last4=Su |first4=Xuefen |last5=Wu |first5=Anise M. S. |last6=Tang |first6=Jie |last7=Qin |first7=Zuguo |date=31 October 2016 |title=Validation of the Social Networking Activity Intensity Scale among Junior Middle School Students in China |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=e0165695 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1165695L |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0165695 |pmc=5087891 |pmid=27798699 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=van den Eijnden |first1=Regina J.J.M. |last2=Lemmens |first2=Jeroen S. |last3=Valkenburg |first3=Patti M. |date=August 2016 |title=The Social Media Disorder Scale |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=61 |pages=478–487 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.038 |doi-access=free}} There is not one single scale that is being used by all researchers.{{cite journal |last1=Vilca |first1=Lindsey W. |last2=Vallejos |first2=María |date=July 2015 |title=Construction of the Risk of Addiction to Social Networks Scale (Cr.A.R.S.) |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=48 |pages=190–198 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.049}}

Screen time recommendations for children and families have been developed by the American Academy of Pediatrics.{{cite web|url=http://www.healthychildren.org/English/family-life/Media/Pages/How-to-Make-a-Family-Media-Use-Plan.aspx|title=How to Make a Family Media Use Plan|website=HealthyChildren.org|access-date=2019-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606111436/https://www.healthychildren.org/English/family-life/Media/Pages/How-to-Make-a-Family-Media-Use-Plan.aspx|archive-date=2019-06-06|url-status = live}}{{cite journal|last=Korioth|first=Trisha|date=2018-12-12|title=Family Media Plan helps parents set boundaries for kids|url=http://www.aappublications.org/news/2016/10/21/MediaParents102116|journal=AAP News|access-date=2019-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109155630/http://www.aappublications.org/news/2016/10/21/MediaParents102116|archive-date=2019-01-09|url-status = live}}

Possible therapeutic interventions published include:

• Self-help interventions, including application-specific timers;
• Cognitive behavioural therapy;{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/cognitive-behavioral-therapy|title=Cognitive Behavioral Therapy | Psychology Today|website=www.psychologytoday.com}} and
• Organisational and schooling support.{{cite journal |last1=Andreassen |first1=Cecilie Schou |title=Online Social Network Site Addiction: A Comprehensive Review |journal=Current Addiction Reports |date=June 2015 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=175–184 |doi=10.1007/s40429-015-0056-9 }}

Medications have not been shown to be effective in randomized, controlled trials for the related conditions of Internet addiction disorder or gaming disorder.

Prevention approaches include screen time monitoring apps and other tech-based approaches to improve efficiency and decrease screen time and tools to help with addiction to online platform products.{{Cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-use-screen-time-ios-12/|title=How to Use Apple's Screen Time Controls on iOS 12|last=Ceres|first=Pia|date=2018-09-25|magazine=Wired|access-date=2018-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217111918/https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-use-screen-time-ios-12/|archive-date=2018-12-17|url-status = live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.androidauthority.com/blloc-zero-18-pre-order-917309/|title=The Blloc Zero 18 is a minimalist's smartphone with some great ideas|website=www.androidauthority.com|access-date=2018-12-19|date=2018-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219182314/https://www.androidauthority.com/blloc-zero-18-pre-order-917309/|archive-date=2018-12-19|url-status = live}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.news.com.au/technology/gadgets/mobile-phones/the-best-ways-to-kick-your-zombie-check-habits-revealed/news-story/89b3b28cf82c9a7011ade74039cd98a2|title=Phone addiction: Apple, Google, YouTube screen management tools|website=www.news.com.au|access-date=2018-12-13|date=2018-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212215952/https://www.news.com.au/technology/gadgets/mobile-phones/the-best-ways-to-kick-your-zombie-check-habits-revealed/news-story/89b3b28cf82c9a7011ade74039cd98a2|archive-date=2018-12-12|url-status = live}}{{Cite web|url=https://thenextweb.com/facebook/2018/08/01/social-media-addiction-facebook-instagram/|title=Facebook and Instagram officially announce new tools to fight social media addiction|last=Booth|first=Callum|date=2018-08-01|website=The Next Web|access-date=2018-12-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404172134/https://thenextweb.com/facebook/2018/08/01/social-media-addiction-facebook-instagram/|archive-date=2019-04-04|url-status = live}}{{Cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-47036000|title = Can Nick Clegg help Facebook grow up?|work = BBC News|date = 2019-01-28|last1 = Rajan|first1 = Amol|access-date = 2019-03-01|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190228010950/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-47036000|archive-date = 2019-02-28|url-status = live}}

Parents' methods for monitoring, regulating, and understanding their children's social media use are referred to as parental mediation.{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Liang |last2=Shi |first2=Jingyuan |title=Reducing Harm From Media: A Meta-Analysis of Parental Mediation |journal=Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly |date=March 2019 |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=173–193 |doi=10.1177/1077699018754908 }} Parental mediation strategies include active, restrictive, and co-using methods. Active mediation involves direct parent-child conversations that are intended to educate children on social media norms and safety, as well as the variety and purposes of online content. Restrictive mediation entails the implementation of rules, expectations, and limitations regarding children's social media use and interactions. Co-use is when parents jointly use social media alongside their children, and is most effective when parents are actively participating (like asking questions, making inquisitive/supportive comments) versus being passive about it.{{cite journal |last1=Douglas |first1=Kimberly D. |last2=Smith |first2=Kandy K. |last3=Stewart |first3=Mary W. |last4=Walker |first4=Jean |last5=Mena |first5=Leandro |last6=Zhang |first6=Lei |title=Exploring Parents' Intentions to Monitor and Mediate Adolescent Social Media Use and Implications for School Nurses |journal=The Journal of School Nursing |date=June 2023 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=248–261 |doi=10.1177/1059840520983286 |pmid=33375901 }} Active mediation is the most common strategy used by parents, though the key to success for any mediation strategy is consistency/reliability. When parents reinforce rules inconsistently, have no mediation strategy, or use highly restrictive strategies for monitoring their children's social media use, there is an observable increase in children's aggressive behaviours.{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Lynn Schofield |title=Parental Mediation Theory for the Digital Age |journal=Communication Theory |date=November 2011 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=323–343 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2885.2011.01391.x }}{{cite journal |last1=Martins |first1=Nicole |last2=Mares |first2=Marie-Louise |last3=Nathanson |first3=Amy I. |title=Mixed Messages: Inconsistent Parental Mediation Indirectly Predicts Teens' Online Relational Aggression |journal=Journal of Family Communication |date=2 October 2019 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=311–328 |doi=10.1080/15267431.2019.1649264 }} When parents openly express that they are supportive of their child's autonomy and provide clear, consistent rules for media use, problematic usage and aggression decreases.{{cite journal |last1=Meeus |first1=Anneleen |last2=Eggermont |first2=Steven |last3=Beullens |first3=Kathleen |title=Constantly Connected: The Role of Parental Mediation Styles and Self-Regulation in Pre- and Early Adolescents' Problematic Mobile Device Use |journal=Human Communication Research |date=April 2019 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=119–147 |doi=10.1093/hcr/hqy015 }} Knowing that consistent, autonomy-supportive mediation has more positive outcomes than inconsistent, controlling mediation, parents can consciously foster more direct, involved, and genuine dialogue with their children. This can help prevent or reduce problematic social media use in children and teenagers.

Increased social media use and exposure to social media platforms can lead to negative results and bullying over time.{{Cite web |last=Oblad |first=Timothy |date=1 October 2019 |title=Social Media Use, Depression, and Self-Harm Among Youth |url=https://ifstudies.org/blog/social-media-use-depression-and-self-harm-among-youth |access-date=2022-10-14 |website=Institute for Family Studies |language=en}} While social media's main intention is to share information and communicate with friends and family, there is more evidence pertaining to negative factors rather than positive ones. Social media use has been linked to an increased risk of depression and self harm.{{Cite web |title=Social Media Use, Depression, and Self-Harm Among Youth |url=https://ifstudies.org/blog/social-media-use-depression-and-self-harm-among-youth |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Institute for Family Studies |language=en}} Those from the ages of 13-15 may struggle the most with these issues, but they can be seen in college students as well.{{Cite web |last=Panzer |first=Dan |date=2019-10-23 |title=Social Media Use, Depression, & Self-Harm Among Youth - Free Teens Youth |url=https://freeteensyouth.org/social-media-use-depression-self-harm-among-youth/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |language=en-US}} According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention's 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, data showed that approximately 15% of high school students were electronically bullied in the 12 months prior to the survey that students were asked to complete.{{Cite web |last=School |first=McGovern Medical |date=2021-03-12 |title=The impact of bullying on mental health |url=https://med.uth.edu/psychiatry/2021/03/12/the-impact-of-bullying-on-mental-health/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Louis A. Faillace, MD, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences |language=en}} Bullying over social media has sparked suicide rates immensely within the last decade.{{Cite web |title=Social Media Use, Depression, and Self-Harm Among Youth |url=https://ifstudies.org/blog/social-media-use-depression-and-self-harm-among-youth |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Institute for Family Studies |language=en}}

Older generations are affected by social media in different areas to teens and young adults. Social media plays an integral role in the daily lives of middle aged adults, especially in regards to their career and communication. Studies have suggested that many individuals feel that smartphones are vital for their career planning and success, but a pressure to connect with family and friends via social media becomes an issue.{{Cite book |last1=Li |first1=Wenxin |title=Proceedings of the 2021 4th International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2021) |last2=Lin |first2=Xuantong |last3=Wu |first3=Jiani |last4=Xue |first4=Wenhan |last5=Zhang |first5=Junxian |date=2021-12-24 |publisher=Atlantis Press |isbn=978-94-6239-495-7 |volume=615 |pages=294–300 |language=en |chapter=Impacts Social Media Have on Young Generation and Older Adults |doi=10.2991/assehr.k.211220.051 |chapter-url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-21/125967395 |s2cid=247214924}} This is reinforced by further studies suggesting that middle aged people feel more isolated and lonely due to the use of social media, to the extent of diagnosis of anxiety and depression with excessive use. Similarly to teens and young adults, comparisons to others is often the reason for negative mental impacts amongst middle aged individuals. Surveys suggest that a pressure to perform and feelings of inferiority due to observing others lives through social media has caused depression and anxiety amongst middle class individuals specifically.{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Daniel |title=How the World Changed Social Media |last2=Costa |first2=Elisabetta |last3=Haynes |first3=Nell |last4=McDonald |first4=Tom |last5=Nicolescu |first5=Razvan |last6=Sinanan |first6=Jolynna |last7=Spyer |first7=Juliano |last8=Venkatraman |first8=Shriram |last9=Wang |first9=Xinyuan |date=2016 |publisher=University College London |isbn=978-1-910634-49-3 |doi=10.14324/111.9781910634493 |hdl=10722/223965 |jstor=j.ctt1g69z35 |doi-access=free |jstor-access=free}}{{page needed|date=December 2024}} However, older generations do reap the benefits of the rise of social media. The feelings of loneliness and isolation have decreased in elderly individuals who use social media to connect to others, ultimately leading to a more fulfilling and physically healthy lifestyle, due to the ability to communicate and stay in touch with people they would have physically not been able to see.

Excessive use of social media may impact academic performance negatively. An increase usage on social media may take time away from spending away from time dedicated to academics.{{cn|date=June 2025}} In school, many teachers report that their students are unfocused and unmotivated. There may be a link between spending free time on social media and weaker critical thinking skills, impatience, and a lack in perseverance.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}} There is also a risk of students struggling with attention and focusing because of how fast their phone can change from topic to topic.{{Cite web |last=Connolly |first=Mark |title=Benefits and Drawbacks of Social Media in Education |url=https://wcer.wisc.edu/news/detail/benefits-and-drawbacks-of-social-media-in-education}}

People with problematic social media use have an increased risk for eating disorders (especially in females),{{cite web |last1=Abrams |first1=Zara |title=How can we minimize Instagram's harmful effects? |url=https://www.apa.org/monitor/2022/03/feature-minimize-instagram-effects |access-date=January 5, 2023 |website=apa.org |publisher=American Psychological Association}} Through the extensive use of social media, adolescents are exposed to images of bodies that are unattainable, especially with the growing presence of photo-editing apps that allow you to alter the way that your body appears in a photo and social media can foster an environment for harmful online communities such as those that promote unhealthy habits.{{cite web |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Anushua |last2=Walsh |first2=Shannon |last3=Timko |first3=Alix |date=14 October 2019 |title=How Perfect is the New Normal? The Impact of Social Media on Disordered Eating |url=https://policylab.chop.edu/blog/how-perfect-new-normal-impact-social-media-disordered-eating |access-date=3 April 2021 |website=Children's Hospital of Philadelphia PolicyLab |publisher=PolicyLab}}{{cite journal |last1=Sidani |first1=Jaime |title=The Association between Social Media Use and Eating Concerns among U.S. Young Adults |journal=Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics |date=2016 |volume=116 |issue=9 |pages=1465–1472 |publisher=Ha |doi=10.1016/j.jand.2016.03.021|pmid=27161027 |pmc=5003636 }} Along with that is the normalization of cosmetic surgery which sets unrealistic beauty standards as well. This can, in turn, influence both the diet and exercise practices of adolescents as they try to fit the standard that their social media consumption has set for them.

Psychologists estimate that as many as 5 to 10% of Americans meet the criteria for social media addiction today.{{Cite web |title=Social Media Addiction |url=https://www.addictioncenter.com/drugs/social-media-addiction/ |access-date=2021-04-03 |website=Addiction Center |language=en-US}}

A survey conducted by Pew Research Center from January 8 through February 7, 2019, found that 80% of Americans go online every day.{{Cite web |title=About three-in-ten U.S. adults say they are 'almost constantly' online |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/07/25/americans-going-online-almost-constantly/ |access-date=2020-10-22 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}} Among young adults, 48% of 18- to 29-year-olds reported going online 'almost constantly' and 46% of them reported going online 'multiple times per day.' Young adults going online 'almost constantly' increased by 9% just since 2018. On July 30, 2019, U.S. Senator Josh Hawley introduced the Social Media Addiction Reduction Technology (SMART) Act which is intended to crack down on "practices that exploit human psychology or brain physiology to substantially impede freedom of choice". It specifically prohibits features including infinite scrolling and Auto-Play.{{cite news |last=Hern |first=Alex |date=31 July 2019 |title=US could ban 'addictive' autoplay videos and infinite scrolling online |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2019/jul/31/us-could-ban-addictive-autoplay-videos-and-infinite-scrolling-online |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731114645/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2019/jul/31/us-could-ban-addictive-autoplay-videos-and-infinite-scrolling-online |archive-date=31 July 2019 |access-date=31 July 2019 |work=The Guardian}}{{cite news |last=Pietsch |first=Bryan |date=30 July 2019 |title=Oh Snap: U.S. senator proposes bill to ban Snapchat 'Snapstreaks' |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-snap-senate-streaks/oh-snap-u-s-senator-proposes-bill-to-ban-snapchat-snapstreaks-idUSKCN1UP26I |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730224023/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-snap-senate-streaks/oh-snap-u-s-senator-proposes-bill-to-ban-snapchat-snapstreaks-idUSKCN1UP26I |archive-date=30 July 2019 |access-date=31 July 2019 |work=Reuters}}

A study conducted by Junling Gao and associates in Wuhan, China, on mental health during the COVID-19 outbreak revealed that there was a high prevalence of mental health problems including generalized anxiety and depression.{{Cite journal |last=Gao, J., Zheng, P., Jia, Y., Chen, H., Mao, Y., Chen, S., Wang, Y., Fu, H., & Dai, J. |date=2020 |title=Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-19 outbreak |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=e0231924 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1531924G |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0231924 |pmc=7162477 |pmid=32298385 |doi-access=free}} This had a positive correlation to 'frequent social media exposure.' Based on these findings, the Chinese government increased mental health resources during the COVID-19 pandemic, including online courses, online consultation and hotline resources.

From an anthropological lens, addiction to social media is a socially constructed concept that has been medicalized because this behavior does not align with behavior accepted by certain hegemonic social groups.{{cite journal |last1=Sutton |first1=Theodora |date=2020 |title=Digital harm and addiction: An anthropological view |journal=Anthropology Today |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=17–22 |doi=10.1111/1467-8322.12553}}

{{main|Death of Molly Russell}}

In November 2017, a fourteen-year-old British girl from Harrow, London, named Molly Russell, took her own life after viewing negative, graphic, and descriptive content primarily on social media platforms such as Instagram and Pinterest.{{cite web |last=Linge |first=Mary Kay |date=8 October 2022 |title=How London teen Molly Russell's suicide could spark social media reforms for US kids |url=https://nypost.com/2022/10/08/molly-russells-death-may-spark-social-media-reforms-for-us-kids/ |website=New York Post}} The coroner of this case, Andrew Walker also concluded that Molly's death was "an act of self harm suffering from depression and the negative effects of online content". Molly's case has sparked a lot of attention not only across the UK but in the U.S. as well. It raises the question on whether or not policies and regulations will either be set into place or changed to protect the safety of children on the Internet. Child safety campaigners hope that creating regulations will help to shift the fundamentals that are associated with social media platforms such as Instagram and Pinterest.{{Cite magazine |last=Meaker |first=Morgan |title=How A British Teen's Death Changed Social Media |url=https://www.wired.com/story/how-a-british-teens-death-changed-social-media/ |access-date=2022-10-20 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028}}

Molly Russell's case sparked discussion both in the UK and the U.S. on how to protect individuals from harmful online content. In the UK, the Online Safety Bill was officially introduced into Parliament in March 2022: the bill covers a range of possible dangerous content such as revenge porn, grooming, hate speech, or anything related to suicide.{{Cite news |date=2021-05-12 |title=Government lays out plans to protect users online |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-57071977 |access-date=2022-10-20 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}} Overall, the bill will not only protect children from online content but talk about how they can deal with this content that may be illegal. It also covers verification roles and advertising as this will all be covered on the social media platform's terms and conditions page. If the social media platforms fail to comply with these new regulations, they will face a $7500 fine for each offense. When it comes to the U.S., recommendations were offered such as finding an independent agency to implement a system of regulations similar to the Online Safety Bill in the U.K.{{Cite web |last=MacCarthy |first=Mark |date=2022-05-19 |title=What U.S. policymakers can learn from the U.K.'s Online Safety Bill |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2022/05/19/what-u-s-policymakers-can-learn-from-the-u-k-s-online-safety-bill/ |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}} Another potential idea was finding a specific rule making agency where the authority is strictly and solely focused on a digital regulator who is available 24/7. California already launched an act called the Age Appropriate Design Code Act in August 2022, which aims to protect children under the age of eighteen especially regarding privacy on the Internet.{{Cite web |last=McCarthy |first=Kieren |date=2022-09-14 |title=America acts while the UK's Online Safety Bill remains in legal limbo |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/spotlight/cyber/2022/09/america-acts-uk-online-safety-bill-remains-legal-limbo |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=New Statesman |language=en-US}} The overall hope and goal of these new laws, policies, and regulations set into place is to 1) ensure that a case such as Molly's never happens again and 2) protects individuals from harmful online content that can lead to mental health problems such as suicide, depression, and self-harm.

In 2022, a case was successfully litigated that implicated a social media platform in the suicide of a Canadian teenage girl named Amanda Todd who died by hanging. This was the first time that any social media platform was held liable for a user's actions.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Empirical research indicates that addiction to social media is triggered by dispositional factors (such as personality, desires, and self-esteem), but specific socio-cultural and behavioural reinforcement factors remain to be investigated empirically.{{cite journal |last1=Pallesen |first1=Cecilie Schou Andreassen |last2=Pallesen |first2=Stale |date=31 July 2014 |title=Social Network Site Addiction - An Overview |journal=Current Pharmaceutical Design |volume=20 |issue=25 |pages=4053–4061 |doi=10.2174/13816128113199990616 |pmid=24001298}}

Social media addiction may also have other neurobiological risk factors; understanding this addiction is still being actively studied and researched, but there is some evidence that suggests a possible link between problematic social media use and neurobiological aspects.{{cite journal |last1=Tereshchenko |first1=Sergey Yu |date=19 May 2023 |title=Neurobiological risk factors for problematic social media use as a specific form of Internet addiction: A narrative review |journal=World Journal of Psychiatry |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=160–173 |doi=10.5498/wjp.v13.i5.160 |pmc=10251362 |pmid=37303928 |doi-access=free}}

• {{annotated link|Algorithmic radicalization}}
• {{annotated link|Computer addiction}}
• {{annotated link|Digital media use and mental health}}
• {{annotated link|Dopamine fasting}}
• {{annotated link|Evolutionary mismatch}}
• {{annotated link|Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal}}
• {{annotated link|Facebook Files}}
• Instagram impact on people
• Social media bias
• {{annotated link|Problematic smartphone use}}
• Social media as a news source - How people use social media to consume news
• {{annotated link|Social influence bias}}
• Social media restrictions on children in Australia
• {{annotated link|The Social Dilemma}}
• {{annotated link|Vicarious trauma after viewing media}}
• {{annotated link|Adolescence (TV series)}}

{{Reflist}}

• National Institute of Mental Health, (2099), Social Anxiety Disorder : More Than Just Shyness, U.S., retrieved from [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness/index.shtml Social Anxiety Disorder: More Than Just Shyness - National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)]
• {{cite journal |last1=Al-Rahmi |first1=Waleed Mugahed |last2=Othman |first2=Mohd Shahizan |date=2013 |title=The Impact of Social Media use on Academic Performance among university students: A Pilot Study |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283723637 |journal=Journal of Information Systems Research and Innovation |pages=1–10}}
• {{Cite journal |author=Mateus, Samuel |date=2012 |title=Social Networks Scopophilic dimension – social belonging through spectatorship |journal=Observatorio (OBS*) Journal |issue=Special Issue |doi=10.15847/obsOBS000605 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10400.13/2918}}

{{Wikinews|New American Psychological Association guidelines: Parents should advise teenagers on social media use, impose restrictions|position=left}}

{{Digital media use and mental health}}

Category:Digital media use and mental health

*

Category:Social influence

Category:Behavioral addiction