Prochlorococcus

Although there had been several earlier records of very small chlorophyll-b-containing cyanobacteria in the ocean,{{cite journal |doi=10.4319/lo.1979.24.5.0928 |first1=P.W. |last1=Johnson |author2-link=John McNeill Sieburth |first2=J.M. |last2=Sieburth |year=1979 |title=Chroococcoid cyanobacteria in the sea: a ubiquitous and diverse phototrophic biomass |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |volume=24 |pages=928–935 |issue=5|bibcode=1979LimOc..24..928J }}{{cite journal |doi=10.4319/lo.1983.28.4.0757 |first1=W.W.C. |last1=Gieskes |first2=G.W. |last2=Kraay |year=1983 |title=Unknown chlorophyll a derivatives in the North Sea and the tropical Atlantic Ocean revealed by HPLC analysis |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |volume=28 |pages=757–766 |issue=4|bibcode=1983LimOc..28..757G |doi-access=free }} Prochlorococcus was discovered in 1986{{cite journal |first1=S.W. |last1=Chisholm |first2=R.J. |last2=Olson |first3=E.R. |last3=Zettler |first4=J. |last4=Waterbury |first5=R. |last5=Goericke |first6=N. |last6=Welschmeyer |year=1988 |title=A novel free-living prochlorophyte occurs at high cell concentrations in the oceanic euphotic zone |journal=Nature |volume=334 |pages=340–3 |doi=10.1038/334340a0 |issue=6180 |bibcode=1988Natur.334..340C|s2cid=4373102 }} by Sallie W. (Penny) Chisholm of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Robert J. Olson of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and other collaborators in the Sargasso Sea using flow cytometry. Chisholm was awarded the Crafoord Prize in 2019 for the discovery.{{cite web |title=The Crafoord Prize in Biosciences 2019|url=https://www.crafoordprize.se/press_release/the-crafoord-prize-in-biosciences-2019|publisher=Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences|date=January 17, 2019|access-date=April 26, 2022}} The first culture of Prochlorococcus was isolated in the Sargasso Sea in 1988 (strain SS120) and shortly another strain was obtained from the Mediterranean Sea (strain MED). The name Prochlorococcus{{cite journal |author-link1=Sallie W. Chisholm |first1=S.W. |last1=Chisholm |first2=S.L. |last2=Frankel |first3=R. |last3=Goericke |first4=R.J. |last4=Olson |first5=B. |last5=Palenik |first6=J.B. |last6=Waterbury |first7=L. |last7=West-Johnsrud |first8=E.R. |last8=Zettler |year=1992 |title=Prochlorococcus marinus nov. gen. nov. sp.: an oxyphototrophic marine prokaryote containing divinyl chlorophyll a and b |journal=Archives of Microbiology |volume=157 |pages=297–300 |doi=10.1007/BF00245165 |issue=3|bibcode=1992ArMic.157..297C |s2cid=32682912 }} originated from the fact it was originally assumed that Prochlorococcus was related to Prochloron and other chlorophyll-b-containing bacteria, called prochlorophytes, but it is now known that prochlorophytes form several separate phylogenetic groups within the cyanobacteria subgroup of the bacteria domain. The only species within the genus described is Prochlorococcus marinus, although two subspecies have been named for low-light and high-light adapted niche variations.{{Cite web |title=Prochlorococcus marinus |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/data-hub/taxonomy/1219/ |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=NCBI |language=en}}

Marine cyanobacteria are to date the smallest known photosynthetic organisms; Prochlorococcus is the smallest at just 0.5 to 0.7 micrometres in diameter.{{cite journal|last1=Biller|first1=Steven J.|last2=Berube|first2=Paul M.|last3=Lindell|first3=Debbie|author-link3=Debbie Lindell|last4=Chisholm|first4=Sallie W.|title=Prochlorococcus: the structure and function of collective diversity|journal=Nature Reviews Microbiology|date=1 December 2014|volume=13|issue=1|pages=13–27|doi=10.1038/nrmicro3378|pmid=25435307|url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/97151/2/NRM_final_wfigs%20for%20Dspace.pdf|hdl=1721.1/97151|s2cid=18963108|hdl-access=free}} The coccoid shaped cells are non-motile and free-living. Their small size and large surface-area-to-volume ratio, gives them an advantage in nutrient-poor water. Still, it is assumed that Prochlorococcus have a very small nutrient requirement.{{cite journal | url= | volume=63 | issue=1 | title=Prochlorococcus, a marine photosynthetic prokaryote of global significance | year=1999 | pages=106–127 |vauthors=Partensky F, Hess WR, Vaulot D | journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews | pmid = 10066832 | pmc=98958| doi=10.1128/MMBR.63.1.106-127.1999 }} Moreover, Prochlorococcus have adapted to use sulfolipids instead of phospholipids in their membranes to survive in phosphate deprived environments.{{cite journal|last1=Van Mooy|first1=B. A. S.|last2=Rocap|first2=G.|last3=Fredricks|first3=H. F.|last4=Evans|first4=C. T.|last5=Devol|first5=A. H.|title=Sulfolipids dramatically decrease phosphorus demand by picocyanobacteria in oligotrophic marine environments|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=26 May 2006|volume=103|issue=23|pages=8607–12|doi=10.1073/pnas.0600540103|pmid=16731626|pmc=1482627|bibcode=2006PNAS..103.8607V|doi-access=free}} This adaptation allows them to avoid competition with heterotrophs that are dependent on phosphate for survival. Typically, Prochlorococcus divide once a day in the subsurface layer or oligotrophic waters.

Prochlorococcus is abundant in the euphotic zone of the world's tropical oceans.{{cite journal | last1 = Chisholm | first1 = S.W. | last2 = Frankel | first2 = S. | last3 = Goericke | first3 = R. | last4 = Olson | first4 = R. | last5 = Palenik | first5 = B. | last6 = Waterbury | first6 = J. | last7 = West-Johnsrud | first7 = L. | last8 = Zettler | first8 = E. | year = 1992 | title = Prochlorococcus marinus nov. gen. nov. sp.: an oxyphototrophic marine prokaryote containing divinyl chlorophyll a and b. | journal = Archives of Microbiology | volume = 157 | issue = 3| pages = 297–300 | doi=10.1007/bf00245165| bibcode = 1992ArMic.157..297C | s2cid = 32682912 }} It is possibly the most plentiful genus on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater may contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide, the average yearly abundance is {{val|2.8|to|3.0|e=27}} individuals{{Cite journal | last1 = Flombaum | first1 = P. | last2 = Gallegos | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Gordillo | first3 = R. A. | last4 = Rincon | first4 = J. | last5 = Zabala | first5 = L. L. | last6 = Jiao | first6 = N. | last7 = Karl | first7 = D. M. | last8 = Li | first8 = W. K. W. | last9 = Lomas | first9 = M. W. | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1307701110 | last10 = Veneziano | first10 = D. | last11 = Vera | first11 = C. S. | last12 = Vrugt | first12 = J. A. | last13 = Martiny | first13 = A. C. | title = Present and future global distributions of the marine Cyanobacteria Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 110 | issue = 24 | pages = 9824–9 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23703908| pmc = 3683724| bibcode = 2013PNAS..110.9824F | doi-access = free }} (for comparison, that is approximately the number of atoms in a ton of gold). Prochlorococcus is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) regions of the oceans. Prochlorococcus is mostly found in a temperature range of 10–33 °C and some strains can grow at depths with low light (<1% surface light). These strains are known as LL (Low Light) ecotypes, with strains that occupy shallower depths in the water column known as HL (High Light) ecotypes.{{cite journal | last1 = Coleman | first1 = M. | last2 = Sullivan | first2 = M. | last3 = Martiny | first3 = A. | last4 = Steglich | first4 = C. | last5 = Barry | first5 = K. | last6 = DeLong | first6 = E. | last7 = Chisholm | first7 = S. | year = 2006 | title = Genomic islands and the ecology and evolution of Prochlorococcus | url = http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/6506g5sk| journal = Science | volume = 311 | issue = 5768| pages = 1768–70 | doi=10.1126/science.1122050 | pmid=16556843| bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1768C | s2cid = 3196592 }} Furthermore, Prochlorococcus are more plentiful in the presence of heterotrophs that have catalase abilities.{{cite journal|last1=Morris|first1=J. J.|last2=Kirkegaard|first2=R.|last3=Szul|first3=M. J.|last4=Johnson|first4=Z. I.|last5=Zinser|first5=E. R.|title=Facilitation of Robust Growth of Prochlorococcus Colonies and Dilute Liquid Cultures by "Helper" Heterotrophic Bacteria|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|date=23 May 2008|volume=74|issue=14|pages=4530–4|doi=10.1128/AEM.02479-07|pmid=18502916|pmc=2493173|bibcode=2008ApEnM..74.4530M}} Prochlorococcus do not have mechanisms to degrade reactive oxygen species and rely on heterotrophs to protect them. The bacterium accounts for an estimated 13–48% of the global photosynthetic production of oxygen, and forms part of the base of the ocean food chain.{{cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Zachary I.|last2=Zinser|first2=Erik R.|last3=Coe|first3=Allison|last4=McNulty|first4=Nathan P.|last5=Woodward|first5=E. Malcolm S.|last6=Chisholm|first6=Sallie W.|title=Niche Partitioning among Prochlorococcus Ecotypes along Ocean-Scale Environmental Gradients|journal=Science|date=2006|volume=311|issue=5768|pages=1737–40|doi=10.1126/science.1118052|pmid=16556835|bibcode=2006Sci...311.1737J|s2cid=3549275}}

Prochlorococcus is closely related to Synechococcus, another abundant photosynthetic cyanobacteria, which contains the light-harvesting antennae phycobilisomes. However, Prochlorochoccus has evolved to use a unique light-harvesting complex, consisting predominantly of divinyl derivatives of chlorophyll a (Chl a2) and chlorophyll b (Chl b2) and lacking monovinyl chlorophylls and phycobilisomes.{{cite journal |vauthors=Ting CS, Rocap G, King J, Chisholm S |year=2002 |title=Cyanobacterial photosynthesis in the oceans: the origins and significance of divergent light-harvesting strategies |journal=Trends in Microbiology |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=134–142 |doi=10.1016/s0966-842x(02)02319-3|pmid=11864823 }} Prochlorococcus is the only known wild-type oxygenic phototroph that does not contain Chl a as a major photosynthetic pigment, and is the only known prokaryote with α-carotene.{{cite journal |vauthors=Goericke R, Repeta D|year=1992 |title=The pigments of Prochlorococcus marinus: the presence of divinyl chlorophyll a and b in a marine prokaryote |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=425–433 |doi=10.4319/lo.1992.37.2.0425|bibcode=1992LimOc..37..425R |doi-access=free }}

The genomes of several strains of Prochlorococcus have been sequenced.{{cite journal|first1=G. |last1=G. Rocap |first2=F.W. |last2=Larimer |first3=J. |last3=Lamerdin |first4=S. |last4=Malfatti |first5=P. |last5=Chain |first6=N.A. |last6=Ahlgren |first7=A. |last7=Arellano |first8=M. |last8=Coleman |first9=L. |last9=Hauser |first10=W.R. |last10=Hess |first11=Z.I. |last11=Johnson |first12=M. |last12=Land |first13=D. |last13=Lindell |author-link13=Debbie Lindell |first14=A.F. |last14=Post |first15=W. |last15=Regala |first16=M. |last16=Shah |first17=S.L. |last17=Shaw |first18=C. |last18=Steglich |first19=M.B. |last19=Sullivan |first20=C.S. |last20=Ting |first21=A. |last21=Tolonen |first22=E.A. |last22=Webb |first23=E.R. |last23=Zinser |first24=S.W. |last24=Chisholm |year=2003 |title=Genome divergence in two Prochlorococcus ecotypes reflects oceanic niche differentiation |journal=Nature |volume=424 |pmid=12917642 |issue=6952 |pages=1042–7 |doi=10.1038/nature01947 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01947 |bibcode=2003Natur.424.1042R |s2cid=4344597 }} Twelve complete genomes have been sequenced which reveal physiologically and genetically distinct lineages of Prochlorococcus marinus that are 97% similar in the 16S rRNA gene.{{cite journal|vauthors=Martiny AC, Tai A, Veneziano D, Primeau F, Chisholm S|year=2009|title=Taxonomic resolution, ecotypes and biogeography of Prochlorococcus|journal=Environmental Microbiology|volume=11|issue=4|pages=823–832|doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01803.x|pmid=19021692|bibcode=2009EnvMi..11..823M |s2cid=25323390 |url=https://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/2c3638zx }} Research has shown that a massive genome reduction occurred during the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth, which was followed by population bottlenecks.{{cite journal | pmc=10837832 | date=2024 | last1=Zhang | first1=H. | last2=Hellweger | first2=F. L. | last3=Luo | first3=H. | title=Genome reduction occurred in early Prochlorococcus with an unusually low effective population size | journal=The ISME Journal | volume=18 | issue=1 | pages=wrad035 | doi=10.1093/ismejo/wrad035 | pmid=38365237 }}

The high-light ecotype has the smallest genome (1,657,990 basepairs, 1,716 genes) of any known oxygenic phototroph, but the genome of the low-light type is much larger (2,410,873 base pairs, 2,275 genes).

Marine Prochlorococcus cyanobacteria have several genes that function in DNA recombination, repair and replication. These include the recBCD gene complex whose product, exonuclease V, functions in recombinational repair of DNA, and the umuCD gene complex whose product, DNA polymerase V, functions in error-prone DNA replication.{{cite journal |vauthors=Cassier-Chauvat C, Veaudor T, Chauvat F |title=Comparative Genomics of DNA Recombination and Repair in Cyanobacteria: Biotechnological Implications |journal=Front Microbiol |volume=7 |pages=1809 |date=2016 |pmid=27881980 |pmc=5101192 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2016.01809 |doi-access=free}} These cyanobacteria also have the gene lexA that regulates an SOS response system, probably a system like the well-studied E. coli SOS system that is employed in the response to DNA damage.

Ancestors of Prochlorococcus contributed to the production of early atmospheric oxygen.{{Citation |title=The tiny creature that secretly powers the planet {{!}} Penny Chisholm | date=23 July 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ylOlZz7s52Q |language=en |access-date=2022-04-26}} Despite Prochlorococcus being one of the smallest types of marine phytoplankton in the world's oceans, its substantial number make it responsible for a major part of the oceans', world's photosynthesis, and oxygen production. The size of Prochlorococcus (0.5 to 0.7 μm) and the adaptations of the various ecotypes allow the organism to grow abundantly in low nutrient waters such as the waters of the tropics and the subtropics (c. 40°N to 40°S);{{cite journal |last1=Partensky |first1=F. |last2=Blanchot |first2=J. |last3=Vaulot |first3=D. |title=Differential distribution and ecology of Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus in oceanic waters: a review|journal=Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique de Monaco |date=1999 |issue=spécial 19 |page=431 |issn=0304-5722}} however, they can be found in higher latitudes as high up as 60° north but at fairly minimal concentrations and the bacteria's distribution across the oceans suggest that the colder waters could be fatal. This wide range of latitude along with the bacteria's ability to survive up to depths of 100 to 150 metres, i.e. the average depth of the mixing layer of the surface ocean, allows it to grow to enormous numbers, up to {{Val|3|e=27}} individuals worldwide. This enormous number makes the Prochlorococcus play an important role in the global carbon cycle and oxygen production. Along with Synechococcus (another genus of cyanobacteria that co-occurs with Prochlorococcus) these cyanobacteria are responsible for approximately 50% of marine carbon fixation, making it an important carbon sink via the biological carbon pump (i.e. the transfer of organic carbon from the surface ocean to the deep via several biological, physical and chemical processes).{{cite journal|first1=Fei-Xue|last1=Fu|first2=Mark E.|last2=Warner|first3=Yaohong|last3=Zhang|first4=Yuanyuan|last4=Feng|first5=David A.|last5=Hutchins|title=Effects of Increased Temperature and CO₂ on Photosynthesis, Growth, and Elemental Ratios in Marine Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus (Cyanobacteria)|journal=Journal of Phycology|date=16 May 2007|volume=43|issue=3|pages=485–496|doi=10.1111/j.1529-8817.2007.00355.x|bibcode=2007JPcgy..43..485F |s2cid=53353243}} The abundance, distribution and all other characteristics of the Prochlorococcus make it a key organism in oligotrophic waters serving as an important primary producer to the open ocean food webs.

Prochlorococcus has different "ecotypes" occupying different niches and can vary by pigments, light requirements, nitrogen and phosphorus utilization, copper, and virus sensitivity.{{cite journal |first1=N.J. |last1=West |first2=D.J. |last2=Scanlan |year=1999 |title=Niche-partitioning of Prochlorococcus in a stratified water column in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=2585–91 |doi=10.1128/AEM.65.6.2585-2591.1999 |pmc=91382 |pmid=10347047 |doi-access=free}} It is thought that Prochlorococcus may occupy potentially 35 different ecotypes and sub-ecotypes within the worlds' oceans. They can be differentiated on the basis of the sequence of the ribosomal RNA gene. It has been broken down by NCBI Taxonomy into two different subspecies, Low-light Adapted (LL) or High-light Adapted (HL). There are six clades within each subspecies.

Prochlorococcus marinus subsp. marinus is associated with low-light adapted types. It is also further classified by sub-ecotypes LLI-LLVII, where LLII/III has not been yet phylogenetically uncoupled.{{Cite journal |last1=Yan |first1=Wei |last2=Feng |first2=Xuejin |last3=Zhang |first3=Wei |last4=Zhang |first4=Rui |last5=Jiao |first5=Nianzhi |date=2020-11-01 |title=Research advances on ecotype and sub-ecotype differentiation of Prochlorococcus and its environmental adaptability |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-020-9651-0 |journal=Science China Earth Sciences |language=en |volume=63 |issue=11 |pages=1691–1700 |doi=10.1007/s11430-020-9651-0 |bibcode=2020ScChD..63.1691Y |s2cid=221218462 |issn=1869-1897}} LV species are found in highly iron scarce locations around the equator, and as a result, have lost several ferric proteins.{{Cite journal |last1=Rusch |first1=Douglas B. |last2=Martiny |first2=Adam C. |last3=Dupont |first3=Christopher L. |last4=Halpern |first4=Aaron L. |last5=Venter |first5=J. Craig |date=2010-09-14 |title=Characterization of Prochlorococcus clades from iron-depleted oceanic regions |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=107 |issue=37 |pages=16184–9 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1009513107 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2941326 |pmid=20733077|bibcode=2010PNAS..10716184R |doi-access=free }} The low-light adapted subspecies is otherwise known to have a higher ratio of chlorophyll b2 to chlorophyll a2, which aids in its ability to absorb blue light.{{cite journal |last1=Ralf |first1=G. |last2=Repeta |first2=D. |year=1992 |title=The pigments of Prochlorococcus marinus: The presence of divinylchlorophyll a and b in a marine prokaryote |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=425–433 |bibcode=1992LimOc..37..425R |doi=10.4319/lo.1992.37.2.0425 |doi-access=free}} Blue light is able to penetrate ocean waters deeper than the rest of the visible spectrum, and can reach depths of >200 m, depending on the turbidity of the water. Their ability to photosynthesize at a depth where blue light penetrates allows them to inhabit depths between 80 and 200 m.{{cite journal |last1=Zinser |first1=E. |last2=Johnson |first2=Z. |last3=Coe |first3=A. |last4=Karaca |first4=E. |last5=Veneziano |first5=D. |last6=Chisholm |first6=S. |year=2007 |title=Influence of light and temperature on Prochlorococcus ecotype distributions in the Atlantic Ocean |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=2205–20 |bibcode=2007LimOc..52.2205Z |doi=10.4319/lo.2007.52.5.2205|s2cid=84767930 |doi-access=free }} Their genomes can range from 1,650,000 to 2,600,000 basepairs in size.

Prochlorococcus marinus subsp. pastoris is associated with high-light adapted types. It can be further classified by sub-ecotypes HLI-HLVI. HLIII, like LV, is also located in an iron-limited environment near the equator, with similar ferric adaptations. The high-light adapted subspecies is otherwise known to have a low ratio of chlorophyll b2 to chlorophyll a2. High-light adapted strains inhabit depths between 25 and 100 m. Their genomes can range from 1,640,000 to 1,800,000 basepairs in size.

Most cyanobacterium are known to have an incomplete tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA).{{Cite journal |last1=García-Fernández |first1=Jose M. |last2=Diez |first2=Jesús |date=December 2004 |title=Adaptive mechanisms of nitrogen and carbon assimilatory pathways in the marine cyanobacteria Prochlorococcus |journal=Research in Microbiology |volume=155 |issue=10 |pages=795–802 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2004.06.009 |pmid=15567272 |issn=0923-2508|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Shuyi |last2=Bryant |first2=Donald A. |date=2011-12-16 |title=The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle in Cyanobacteria |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1210858 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=334 |issue=6062 |pages=1551–3 |doi=10.1126/science.1210858 |pmid=22174252 |bibcode=2011Sci...334.1551Z |s2cid=206536295 |issn=0036-8075}} In this process, 2-oxoglutarate decarboxylase (2OGDC) and succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH), replace the enzyme 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (2-OGDH). Normally, when this enzyme complex joins with NADP+, it can be converted to succinate from 2-oxoglutarate (2-OG). This pathway is non-functional in Prochlorococcus, as succinate dehydrogenase has been lost evolutionarily to conserve energy that may have otherwise been lost to phosphate metabolism.{{Cite journal |last1=Casey |first1=John R. |last2=Mardinoglu |first2=Adil |last3=Nielsen |first3=Jens |last4=Karl |first4=David M. |date=2016-12-27 |editor-last=Gutierrez |editor-first=Marcelino |title=Adaptive Evolution of Phosphorus Metabolism in Prochlorococcus |journal=mSystems |language=en |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=e00065–16 |doi=10.1128/mSystems.00065-16 |issn=2379-5077 |pmc=5111396 |pmid=27868089}}

Table modified from

• Photosynthetic picoplankton
• Pelagibacter
• Synechococcus

{{Reflist|30em}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{cite journal |doi=10.4319/lo.1994.39.4.0954 |first1=L. |last1=Campbell |first2=H.A. |last2=Nolla |first3=D. |last3=Vaulot |year=1994 |title=The importance of Prochlorococcus to community structure in the central North Pacific Ocean |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |volume=39 |pages=954–961 |issue=4|bibcode=1994LimOc..39..954C |doi-access=free }}
• {{cite journal |first1=Jagroop |last1=Pandhal |first2=Phillip C. |last2=Wright |first3=Catherine A. |last3=Biggs |year=2007 |title=A quantitative proteomic analysis of light adaptation in a globally significant marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus marinus MED4 |journal=Journal of Proteome Research |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=996–1005 |doi=10.1021/pr060460c|pmid=17298086 }}
• {{cite journal |first=Steve |last=Nadis |title=The cells that rule the seas: the ocean's tiniest inhabitants, notes biological researcher Sallie W. Chisholm, hold the key to understanding the biosphere — and what happens when humans disrupt it |journal=Scientific American |year=2003 |volume=289 |issue=6 |pages=52–53 |pmid=14631732 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1203-52 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-cells-that-rule-the-s/}}
• {{cite journal |first=Melissa |last=Garren |title=The sea we've hardly seen |journal=TEDx Monterey |year=2012 |pages=52f |url=http://www.ted.com/talks/melissa_garren_the_sea_we_ve_hardly_seen.html |access-date=2012-06-22 |archive-date=2013-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202224203/http://www.ted.com/talks/melissa_garren_the_sea_we_ve_hardly_seen.html |url-status=dead }}

{{refend}}

• [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=91448837 The Most Important Microbe You've Never Heard Of]: NPR Story on Prochlorococcus

{{Taxonbar|from=Q18645284|from2=Q310210}}

Category:Synechococcales

Category:Environmental microbiology

Category:Monotypic bacteria genera

Category:Cyanobacteria genera

Category:Marine microorganisms