Progenitor cell
{{short description|Cell that differentiates into one or a few cell types}}
File:Neural progenitors in olfactory bulb.tif with astrocytes (blue).]]
File:Intermediate Progenitor Cell Lineage.png
A progenitor cell is a biological cell that can differentiate into a specific cell type. Stem cells and progenitor cells have this ability in common. However, stem cells are less specified than progenitor cells. Progenitor cells can only differentiate into their "target" cell type.{{Cite book| vauthors = Lawrence BE, Horton PM |title=Progenitor Cells : Biology, Characterization and Potential Clinical Applications |publisher=Nova Science Publishers, Inc|year=2013|pages=26}} The most important difference between stem cells and progenitor cells is that stem cells can replicate indefinitely, whereas progenitor cells can divide only a limited number of times. Controversy about the exact definition remains and the concept is still evolving.{{cite journal | vauthors = Seaberg RM, van der Kooy D | title = Stem and progenitor cells: the premature desertion of rigorous definitions | journal = Trends in Neurosciences | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 125–31 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12591214 | doi = 10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00031-6 | s2cid = 18639810 }}
The terms "progenitor cell" and "stem cell" are sometimes equated.{{DorlandsDict|nine/100009804|progenitor cell}}
Properties
Most progenitors are identified as oligopotent. In this point of view, they can compare to adult stem cells, but progenitors are said to be in a further stage of cell differentiation. They are "midway" between stem cells and fully differentiated cells. The kind of potency they have depends on the type of their "parent" stem cell and also on their niche. Some research found that progenitor cells were mobile and that these progenitor cells could move through the body and migrate towards the tissue where they are needed.{{Cite journal|last1=Badami|first1=Chirag D.|last2=Livingston|first2=David H.|last3=Sifri|first3=Ziad C.|last4=Caputo|first4=Francis J.|last5=Bonilla|first5=Larissa|last6=Mohr|first6=Alicia M.|last7=Deitch|first7=Edwin A.|date=September 2007|title=Hematopoietic Progenitor Cells Mobilize to the Site of Injury After Trauma and Hemorrhagic Shock in Rats|url=https://journals.lww.com/00005373-200709000-00016|journal=Journal of Trauma-Injury Infection & Critical Care|language=en|volume=63|issue=3|pages=596–602|doi=10.1097/TA.0b013e318142d231|pmid=18073606|issn=0022-5282}} Many properties are shared by adult stem cells and progenitor cells.
Research
Progenitor cells have become a hub for research on a few different fronts. Current research on progenitor cells focuses on two different applications: regenerative medicine and cancer biology. Research on regenerative medicine has focused on progenitor cells, and stem cells, because their cellular senescence contributes largely to the process of aging.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahmed AS, Sheng MH, Wasnik S, Baylink DJ, Lau KW | title = Effect of aging on stem cells | journal = World Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–10 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28261550 | pmc = 5316899 | doi = 10.5493/wjem.v7.i1.1 | doi-access = free }} Research on cancer biology focuses on the impact of progenitor cells on cancer responses, and the way that these cells tie into the immune response.{{cite journal | vauthors = Wildes TJ, Flores CT, Mitchell DA | title = Concise Review: Modulating Cancer Immunity with Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells | journal = Stem Cells | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 166–175 | date = February 2019 | pmid = 30353618 | pmc = 6368859 | doi = 10.1002/stem.2933 |doi-access=free }}
The natural aging of cells, called their cellular senescence, is one of the main contributors to aging on an organismal level.{{Cite book |title=Developmental biology |publisher=Sinauer |first1=Scott F. |last1=Gilbert |first2=Michael J. F. |last2=Barresi | date = 15 June 2016 |isbn=978-1-60535-470-5|edition=Eleventh|location=Sunderland, Massachusetts|oclc=945169933}} There are a few different ideas to the cause behind why aging happens on a cellular level. Telomere length has been shown to positively correlate to longevity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Boccardi V, Herbig U | title = Telomerase gene therapy: a novel approach to combat aging | journal = EMBO Molecular Medicine | volume = 4 | issue = 8 | pages = 685–7 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22585424 | pmc = 3494068 | doi = 10.1002/emmm.201200246 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Bernardes de Jesus B, Vera E, Schneeberger K, Tejera AM, Ayuso E, Bosch F, Blasco MA | title = Telomerase gene therapy in adult and old mice delays aging and increases longevity without increasing cancer | journal = EMBO Molecular Medicine | volume = 4 | issue = 8 | pages = 691–704 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22585399 | pmc = 3494070 | doi = 10.1002/emmm.201200245 |doi-access=free }} Increased circulation of progenitor cells in the body has also positively correlated to increased longevity and regenerative processes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Biehl JK, Russell B | title = Introduction to stem cell therapy | journal = The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 98–103; quiz 104–5 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19242274 | pmc = 4104807 | doi = 10.1097/JCN.0b013e318197a6a5 }} Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are one of the main focuses of this field. They are valuable cells because they directly precede endothelial cells, but have characteristics of stem cells. These cells can produce differentiated cells to replenish the supply lost in the natural process of aging, which makes them a target for aging therapy research.{{Cite book| vauthors = Balistreri CR |title=Endothelial progenitor cells : a new real hope?|date=2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-55107-4|location=Cham|oclc=988870936}} This field of regenerative medicine and aging research is still currently evolving.
Recent studies have shown that haematopoietic progenitor cells contribute to immune responses in the body. They have been shown to respond a range of inflammatory cytokines. They also contribute to fighting infections by providing a renewal of the depleted resources caused by the stress of an infection on the immune system. Inflammatory cytokines and other factors released during infections will activate haematopoietic progenitor cells to differentiate to replenish the lost resources.{{cite journal | vauthors = King KY, Goodell MA | title = Inflammatory modulation of HSCs: viewing the HSC as a foundation for the immune response | journal = Nature Reviews. Immunology | volume = 11 | issue = 10 | pages = 685–92 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21904387 | doi = 10.1038/nri3062 | pmc = 4154310 }}
Examples
The characterization or the defining principle of progenitor cells, in order to separate them from others, is based on the different cell markers rather than their morphological appearance.{{cite journal | vauthors = Morgan JE, Partridge TA | title = Muscle satellite cells | journal = The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology | volume = 35 | issue = 8 | pages = 1151–6 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12757751 | doi = 10.1016/s1357-2725(03)00042-6 }}
- Satellite cells found in muscles. They play a major role in muscle cell differentiation and injury recoveries.
- Intermediate progenitor cells formed in the subventricular zone.{{cite journal | vauthors = Noctor SC, Martínez-Cerdeño V, Kriegstein AR | title = Contribution of intermediate progenitor cells to cortical histogenesis | journal = Archives of Neurology | volume = 64 | issue = 5 | pages = 639–42 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17502462 | doi = 10.1001/archneur.64.5.639 | doi-access = free }} Some of these transit amplifying neural progenitors migrate via rostral migratory stream to the olfactory bulb and differentiate further into specific types of neural cells.
- Radial glial cells found in developing regions of the brain, most notably the cortex. These progenitor cells are easily identified by their long radial process.
- Bone marrow stromal cells found in the epidermis and make up 10% of progenitor cells. They are often classed as stem cells due to their high plasticity and potential for unlimited capacity for self-renewal.
- Periosteum contains progenitor cells that develop into osteoblasts and chondroblasts.
- Pancreatic progenitor cells are among the most studied progenitors. They are used in research to develop a cure against diabetes type-1.
- Angioblasts or endothelial progenitor cells (EPC). These are very important for research on fracture and wounds healing.{{cite journal | vauthors = Barber CL, Iruela-Arispe ML | title = The ever-elusive endothelial progenitor cell: identities, functions and clinical implications | journal = Pediatric Research | volume = 59 | issue = 4 Pt 2 | pages = 26R–32R | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16549545 | doi = 10.1203/01.pdr.0000203553.46471.18 | doi-access = free }}
- Blast cells are involved in generation of B- and T-lymphocytes, which participate in immune responses.{{cite journal | vauthors = Carotta S, Nutt SL | title = Losing B cell identity | journal = BioEssays | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 203–7 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18293359 | doi = 10.1002/bies.20725 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Awong G, Zuniga-Pflucker JC | title = Thymus-bound: the many features of T cell progenitors | journal = Frontiers in Bioscience | volume = 3 | pages = 961–9 | date = June 2011 | issue = 3 | pmid = 21622245 | doi = 10.2741/200 }}
- Boundary cap cells from the neural crest form a barrier between the cells of the central nervous system and cells of the peripheral nervous system.{{cite journal | vauthors = Monk KR, Feltri ML, Taveggia C | title = New insights on Schwann cell development | journal = Glia | volume = 63 | issue = 8 | pages = 1376–93 | date =2015 | pmid = 25921593 | pmc = 4470834 | doi = 10.1002/glia.22852 }} Boundary cap neural crest stem cells promote survival of mutant SOD1 motor neurons.{{cite journal |last1=Aggarwal |first1=T |last2=Hoeber |first2=J |last3=Ivert |first3=P |last4=Vasylovska |first4=S |last5=Kozlova |first5=EN |title=Boundary Cap Neural Crest Stem Cells Promote Survival of Mutant SOD1 Motor Neurons. |journal=Neurotherapeutics |date=July 2017 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=773–783 |doi=10.1007/s13311-016-0505-8 |pmid=28070746|pmc=5509618 }}
Development of the human cerebral cortices
Before embryonic day 40 (E40), progenitor cells generate other progenitor cells; after that period, progenitor cells produce only dissimilar mesenchymal stem cell daughters. The cells from a single progenitor cell form a proliferative unit that creates one cortical column; these columns contain a variety of neurons with different shapes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mason JO, Price DJ | title = Building brains in a dish: Prospects for growing cerebral organoids from stem cells | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 334 | pages = 105–118 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27506142 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.07.048 | doi-access = free | hdl = 20.500.11820/53d8facf-017e-4f79-9ca7-9fdf2194e4d5 | hdl-access = free }}
See also
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Stem cells}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Progenitor Cell}}