Psychopathy Checklist

The PCL-R is used for indicating a dimensional score, or a categorical diagnosis, of psychopathy for clinical, legal, or research purposes. It is rated by a mental health professional (such as a psychologist or other professional trained in the field of mental health, psychology, or psychiatry), using 20 items. Each of the items in the PCL-R is scored on a three-point scale according to specific criteria through file information and a semi-structured interview.

The scores are used to predict risk for criminal re-offense and probability of rehabilitation.

The current edition of the PCL-R officially lists three factors (1.a, 1.b, and 2.a), which summarize the 20 assessed areas via factor analysis. The previous edition of the PCL-R{{Cite book |last=Hare |first=Robert D. |title=The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised |date=1991 |publisher=Multi-Health Systems |location=North Tonawanda, New York |author-link=Robert D. Hare}} listed two factors. Factor 1 is labelled "selfish, callous and remorseless use of others". Factor 2 is labelled as "chronically unstable, antisocial and socially deviant lifestyle". There is a high risk of recidivism and mostly small likelihood of rehabilitation for those who are labelled as having "psychopathy" on the basis of the PCL-R ratings in the manual for the test, although treatment research is ongoing.

PCL-R Factors 1a and 1b are correlated with narcissistic personality disorder.{{Cite journal |last1=Huchzermeier |first1=C. |last2=Geiger |first2=F. |last3=Bruss |first3=E. |last4=Godt |first4=N. |last5=Köhler |first5=D. |last6=Hinrichs |first6=G. |last7=Aldenhoff |first7=JB. |date=2007 |title=The relationship between DSM-IV cluster B personality disorders and psychopathy according to Hare's criteria: clarification and resolution of previous contradictions |journal=Behavioral Sciences & the Law |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=901–11 |doi=10.1002/bsl.722 |pmid=17323344}} They are associated with extraversion and positive affect. Factor 1, the so-called core personality traits of psychopathy, may even be beneficial for the psychopath (in terms of nondeviant social functioning).{{Cite journal |last1=Skeem |first1=Jennifer L. |last2=Poythress |first2=Norman |last3=Edens |first3=John F. |last4=Lilienfeld |first4=Scott O. |last5=Cale |first5=Ellison M. |date=2002 |title=Psychopathic personality or personalities? Exploring potential variants of psychopathy and their implications for risk assessment |url=http://www.ccelp.berkeley.edu/files/Skeembackgrpaper2.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=513–546 |doi=10.1016/S1359-1789(02)00098-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124051252/http://www.ccelp.berkeley.edu/files/Skeembackgrpaper2.pdf |archive-date=24 January 2013 |access-date=29 August 2013}}

PCL-R Factors 2a and 2b are particularly strongly correlated to antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality disorder and are associated with reactive anger, criminality, and impulsive violence. The target group for the PCL-R in prisons in some countries is criminals convicted of delict and/or felony. The quality of ratings may depend on how much background information is available and whether the person rated is honest and forthright.

• Item 1: Glibness/superficial charm
• Item 2: Grandiose sense of self-worth
• Item 3: Need for stimulation/proneness to boredom
• Item 4: Pathological lying
• Item 5: Conning/manipulative{{Cite web |title=The Original Psychopath Test |url=http://0eb.com/index_psychopath.html |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=0eb.com}}
• Item 6: Lack of remorse or guilt
• Item 7: Shallow affect
• Item 8: Callous/lack of empathy
• Item 9: Parasitic lifestyle
• Item 10: Poor behavioral controls
• Item 11: Promiscuous sexual behavior
• Item 12: Early behavior problems
• Item 13: Lack of realistic, long-term goals
• Item 14: Impulsivity
• Item 15: Irresponsibility
• Item 16: Failure to accept responsibility for own actions
• Item 17: Many short-term marital relationships
• Item 18: Juvenile delinquency
• Item 19: Revocation of conditional release
• Item 20: Criminal versatility

Each of the 20 items in the PCL-R is scored on a three-point scale, with a rating of 0 if it does not apply at all, 1 if there is a partial match or mixed information, and 2 if there is a reasonably good match to the offender. This is to be done through a face-to-face interview together with supporting information on lifetime behavior (e.g., from case files). It can take up to three hours to collect and review the information.{{Cite journal |last1=Skeem |first1=J. L. |last2=Polaschek |first2=D. L. L. |last3=Patrick |first3=C. J. |last4=Lilienfeld |first4=S. O. |date=2011 |title=Psychopathic Personality: Bridging the Gap Between Scientific Evidence and Public Policy |url=http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/journals/pspi/psychopathy.html |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=95–162 |doi=10.1177/1529100611426706 |pmid=26167886 |s2cid=8521465|url-access=subscription }}

Out of a maximum score of 40, the cut-off for the label of psychopathy is 30 in the United States and 25 in the United Kingdom.{{Cite book |last=Semple |first=David |title=The Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-852783-1 |pages=448–9}} A cut-off score of 25 is also sometimes used for research purposes.

High PCL-R scores are positively associated with measures of impulsivity and aggression, Machiavellianism, persistent criminal behavior, and negatively associated with measures of empathy and affiliation.{{Cite news |last=Wood |first=Janice |date=May 11, 2012 |title=Scans Show Psychopaths Have Brain Abnormalities |language=en-US |work=Psych Central |url=https://psychcentral.com/news/2012/05/11/scans-show-psychopaths-have-brain-abnormalities/38540.html |access-date=February 28, 2018}}{{Cite journal |last=Kavish |first=Nicholas |last2=Jones |first2=Michelle A. |last3=Rock |first3=Rachel C. |last4=Johnson |first4=Alexandria K. |last5=Anderson |first5=Jaime L. |date=2019-06-01 |title=On the Overlap between Psychopathic Traits and Machiavellianism in a Forensic Population |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-018-9708-0 |journal=Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=198–207 |doi=10.1007/s10862-018-9708-0 |issn=1573-3505|url-access=subscription }}

Early factor analysis of the PCL-R indicated it consisted of two factors. Factor 1 captures traits dealing with the interpersonal and affective deficits of psychopathy (e.g., shallow affect, superficial charm, manipulativeness, lack of empathy) whereas factor 2 deals with symptoms relating to antisocial behavior (e.g., criminal versatility, impulsiveness, irresponsibility, poor behavior controls, juvenile delinquency).{{Cite journal |last1=Hare |first1=R.D. |last2=Harpur |first2=T.J. |last3=Hakstian |first3=A.R. |date=1989 |title=Two-factor conceptualization of psychopathy: Construct validity and assessment implications |journal=Psychological Assessment |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=6–17 |doi=10.1037/1040-3590.1.1.6}}

The two factors have been found by those following this theory to display different correlates. Factor 1 has been correlated with narcissistic personality disorder, low anxiety, low empathy,{{Cite journal |last1=Zagon |first1=I. K. |last2=Jackson |first2=H.J. |date=1994 |title=Construct validity of a psychopathy measure |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=125–135 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(94)90269-0}} low stress reaction{{Cite journal |last1=Verona |first1=E. |last2=Patrick |first2=C. J. |last3=Joiner |first3=T. E. |year=2001 |title=Psychopathy, Antisocial Personality, and Suicide Risk |journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology |volume=110 |issue=3 |pages=462–470 |doi=10.1037/0021-843X.110.3.462 |pmid=11502089}} and low suicide risk but high scores on scales of achievement and social potency. In addition, the use of item response theory analysis of female offender PCL-R scores indicates factor 1 items are more important in measuring and generalizing the construct of psychopathy in women than factor 2 items.{{Cite book |last=Hare |first=Robert D. |title=Psychopathy checklist-revised technical manual |date=2003 |publisher=Multihealth Systems, Inc. |edition=2 |location=Toronto, Ontario, Canada |author-link=Robert D. Hare}}

In contrast, Factor 2 was found to be related to antisocial personality disorder, social deviance, sensation seeking, low socioeconomic status and high risk of suicide. The two factors are nonetheless highly correlated and there are strong indications they do result from a single underlying disorder.{{Cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=D. J. |last2=Kosson |first2=D. S. |last3=Michie |year=2001 |title=Psychopathy and ethnicity: Structural, item and test generalizability of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) in Caucasian and African American participants |journal=Psychological Assessment |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=531–542 |doi=10.1037/1040-3590.13.4.531 |pmid=11793896}} Research, however, has failed to replicate the two-factor model in female samples.{{Cite journal |last1=Salekin |first1=R. T. |last2=Rogers |first2=R. |last3=Sewell |first3=K. W. |date=1997 |title=Construct validity of psychopathy in a female offender sample: A mutlitrait-multimethod evaluation |journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology |volume=106 |issue=4 |pages=576–585 |doi=10.1037/0021-843X.106.4.576 |pmid=9358688}}

In 2001 researchers Cooke and Michie at Glasgow Caledonian University suggested, using statistical analysis involving confirmatory factor analysis,{{Cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=D. J. |last2=Michie |first2=C |date=2001 |title=Refining the construct of psychopathy: Towards a hierarchical model |journal=Psychological Assessment |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=171–188 |doi=10.1037/1040-3590.13.2.171 |pmid=11433793}} that a three-factor structure may provide a better model, with those items from factor 2 strictly relating to antisocial behavior (criminal versatility, juvenile delinquency, revocation of conditional release, early behavioral problems and poor behavioral controls) removed. The remaining items would be divided into three factors: arrogant and deceitful interpersonal style, deficient affective experience, and impulsive and irresponsible behavioral style. Hare and colleagues have criticized the Cooke and Michie three-factor model for statistical and conceptual problems, for example, for resulting in impossible parameter combinations (negative variances).{{Cite journal |last1=Hare |first1=Robert D. |author-link=Robert D. Hare |last2=Neumann |first2=Craig S. |year=2008 |title=Psychopathy as a Clinical and Empirical Construct |journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=217–46 |doi=10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091452 |pmid=18370617}}

In the 2003 edition of the PCL-R, Hare added a fourth antisocial behavior factor, consisting of those factor 2 items excluded in the previous model. Again, these models are presumed to be hierarchical with a single, unified psychopathy disorder underlying the distinct but correlated factors.{{Cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=D. J. |last2=Michie |first2=C. |last3=Skeem |first3=J. L. |year=2007 |title=Understanding the structure of the Psychopathy Checklist – Revised: An exploration of methodological confusion |journal=British Journal of Psychiatry |volume=190 |issue=suppl. 49 |pages=s39–s50 |doi=10.1192/bjp.190.5.s39 |pmid=17470942 |doi-access=free}} In the four-factor model of psychopathy, supported by a range of samples, the factors represent the interpersonal, affective, lifestyle, and overt antisocial features of the personality disorder.{{Cite journal |last=Neumann |first=C. S. |year=2007 |title=Psychopathy |journal=British Journal of Psychiatry |volume=191 |issue=Oct |pages=357–358 |doi=10.1192/bjp.191.4.357a |pmid=17906249 |doi-access=free}}

The PCL-R is widely used to assess individuals in high-security psychiatric units, prisons and other settings.{{Cite news |title=Into the Mind of a Psychopath {{!}} DiscoverMagazine.com |work=Discover Magazine |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2016/june/12-psychopath-and-the-hare |access-date=2018-02-28}} This may be of help in deciding who should be detained or released, or who should undergo what kind of treatment. It is also used in academic psychology for its original purpose as an assistive tool in studies on the pathology of psychopathy.

The PCL-R is also used as a risk assessment tool that attempts to predict who will offend or reoffend (recidivism). It is effective in assessing risk of sexual re-offending, which is especially helpful, as clinical judgement of recidivism is a poor predictor.{{Cite book |last1=Craig |first1=Leam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey6wg5PieSsC&pg=PA84 |title=Assessing Risk in Sex Offenders: A Practitioner's Guide |last2=Browne |first2=Kevin |last3=Beech |first3=Anthony R. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-01898-9 |page=84-87}} The PCL-R seems to be more useful for violent sexual offenders who are not pedophiles.

In controlled research environments the inter-rater reliability of the PCL-R may be satisfactory, but in real-world settings it has been found to have rather poor agreement between different raters, especially on the personality trait scores.{{Cite journal |last=Edens |first=John F |year=2010 |title=Inter-rater reliability of the PCL-R total and factor scores among psychopathic sex offenders: are personality features more prone to disagreement than behavioral features? |journal=Behavioral Sciences |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=106–119 |doi=10.1002/bsl.918 |pmid=20101592}}

There are additional inventories directly from the PCL-R, including the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) and Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV). The PCL:SV was developed as a labor-saving assessment for the same forensic settings as the PCL-R and to meet the needs of settings where clients do not necessarily have criminal records (e.g. civil psychiatric patients). It includes 12 items and takes 90 minutes. According to the MacArthur violence risk assessment study in 2014, there is a stronger correlation between the PCL:SV results and later violence than any other of the 134 variables evaluated in that study.{{Cite news |date=2014-06-01 |title=Measuring the Quiet Man: Estimating Risk of Violence {{!}} Psych Central Professional |language=en-US |work=Psych Central Professional |url=https://pro.psychcentral.com/measuring-the-quiet-man-estimating-risk-of-violence/ |access-date=2018-09-17 |archive-date=2018-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918054718/https://pro.psychcentral.com/measuring-the-quiet-man-estimating-risk-of-violence/ |url-status=dead }} The PCL:YV assesses early signs of juvenile psychopathy in children and adolescents.{{Cite journal |last1=Mancino |first1=M. Antonella |last2=Attia |first2=Tarek |date=2022-12-31 |title=Do psychopathic traits predict criminal activity? |journal=Journal of Applied Economics |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1260–1293 |doi=10.1080/15140326.2022.2144009 |issn=1514-0326|doi-access=free |hdl=10419/314206 |hdl-access=free }}

Among laypersons and professionals, there is confusion about the meanings and differences between psychopathy, sociopathy, antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), and the ICD-10 diagnosis, dissocial personality disorder.{{Cite journal |last=Hare |first=Robert D. |author-link=Robert D. Hare |name-list-style=vanc |date=1 February 1996 |title=Psychopathy and Antisocial Personality Disorder: A Case of Diagnostic Confusion |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/dsm-iv/content/article/10168/54831 |journal=Psychiatric Times |publisher=UBM Medica |volume=13 |issue=2 |url-access=registration |access-date=19 May 2017 |archive-date=28 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528053223/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/dsm-iv/content/article/10168/54831 |url-status=dead }}

Hare takes the stance that psychopathy as a syndrome should be considered distinct from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV's antisocial personality disorder construct, although the DSM states ASPD has been referred to as or includes the disorder of psychopathy.{{Cite news |title=We look at what happens in the brain of a psychopath |language=en |work=Medical News Today |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321839.php |access-date=2018-09-17}} Although the diagnosis of ASPD covers two to three times as many prisoners than the diagnosis of psychopathy, Hare believes the PCL-R is better able to predict future criminality, violence, and recidivism than a diagnosis of ASPD.{{Cite journal |last1=Belmore |first1=M. F. |last2=Quinsey |first2=V. L. |year=1994 |title=Correlates of psychopathy in a non-institutional sample |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=339–349 |doi=10.1177/088626094009003004 |s2cid=145395144}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hersh |first1=K. |last2=Gray-Little |first2=B. |year=1998 |title=Psychopathic traits and attitudes associated with self-reported sexual aggression in college men |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=456–471 |doi=10.1177/088626098013004003 |s2cid=144689080}}{{Cite journal |vauthors=Rutherford MJ, Cacciola JS, Alterman AI |year=1999 |title=Antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy in cocaine-dependent women |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=156 |issue=6 |pages=849–56 |doi=10.1176/ajp.156.6.849 |pmid=10360122}} He suggests there are differences between PCL-R-diagnosed psychopaths and non-psychopaths on "processing and use of linguistic and emotional information", while such differences are potentially smaller between those diagnosed with ASPD and without.

Although Hare wanted the DSM-IV-TR to list psychopathy as a unique disorder,{{Cite journal |author-link=Robert D. Hare |vauthors=Hare RD, Hart SD, Harpur TJ |date=August 1991 |title=Psychopathy and the DSM-IV criteria for antisocial personality disorder |url=http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~peterson/psy430s2001/Hare%20RD%20Psychopathy%20JAP%201991.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=391–8 |doi=10.1037/0021-843x.100.3.391 |pmid=1918618 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926115500/http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~peterson/psy430s2001/Hare%20RD%20Psychopathy%20JAP%201991.pdf |archive-date=26 September 2007 |access-date=19 May 2017}} the DSM editors were unconvinced and felt that there was too much room for subjectivity on the part of clinicians when identifying things like remorse and guilt; therefore, the DSM-IV panel decided to stick to observable behavior, namely socially deviant behaviors.

According to Hare, one FBI study produced in 1992 found that 44 percent of offenders who killed a police officer were psychopaths.{{Cite book |last=Hare |first=Robert D |title=Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of Psychopaths Among Us |publisher=Pocket Books |year=1993 |location=New York |pages=25–30}} The study was 'Killed in the Line of Duty: A Study of Selected Felonious Killings of Law Enforcement Officers.'{{Cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Charles E. |last2=Hanburger |first2=Henry F. |last3=Sumeracki |first3=Michael |last4=Young |first4=Marcus |year=2010 |title=The FBI's National Law Enforcement Safety Initiative |url=https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-bulletin/january-2010/the-fbi2019s-national-law-enforcement-safety-initiative}}

Hare has described psychopaths as 'social predators', 'remorseless predators',{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqMZzZ7p3jIC |title=Psychopathy: Theory, research, and implications for society |publisher=Springer |year=1998 |isbn=9780792349198 |editor-last=Cooke |editor-first=D. J. |editor-last2=Forth |editor-first2=A. E. |editor-last3=Hare |editor-first3=R. D.}} or in some cases 'lethal predators',{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ochberg FM, Brantley AC, Hare RD, et al |year=2003 |title=Lethal predators: psychopathic, sadistic, and sane |journal=International Journal of Emergency Mental Health |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=121–36 |pmid=14608825}} and has stated that 'Psychopathic depredations affect people in all races, cultures, and ethnic groups, and at all levels of income and social status'.{{Cite journal |last=Hare |first=Robert D |date=September 1995 |title=Psychopaths: New Trends in Research |journal=The Harvard Mental Health Letter}}

A study using the PCL-R to examine the relationship between antisocial behavior and suicide found that suicide history was strongly correlated to PCL-R factor 2 (reflecting antisocial deviance) and was not correlated to PCL-R factor 1 (reflecting affective functioning). Given that ASPD (antisocial personality disorder) and BPD (borderline personality disorder) relate to factor 2, whereas psychopathy relates to both factors, this would confirm Hervey M. Cleckley's assertion that psychopaths are relatively immune to suicide. People with ASPD, on the other hand, have a relatively high suicide rate. People with BPD have an even higher suicide rate, which is near 10%.{{Cite book |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 |date=2013 |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |isbn=978-0-89042-554-1 |edition=5th |location=Washington |pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/645 645, 663–6]}}{{cite journal| vauthors = Paris J| title=Suicidality in Borderline Personality Disorder. | journal=Medicina (Kaunas) | year= 2019 | volume= 55 | issue= 6 | page=223 | pmid=31142033 | doi=10.3390/medicina55060223 | pmc=6632023 | doi-access=free }} PCL-R factor 1 is correlated to NPD (narcissistic personality disorder) and rarely ever commit suicide, although they may threaten to do so.{{Cite journal |last1=Huchzermeier |first1=C. |last2=Geiger |first2=F. |last3=Bruss |first3=E. |last4=Godt |first4=N. |last5=Köhler |first5=D. |last6=Hinrichs |first6=G. |last7=Aldenhoff |first7=JB. |date=2007 |title=The relationship between DSM-IV cluster B personality disorders and psychopathy according to Hare's criteria: clarification and resolution of previous contradictions |journal=Behavioral Sciences & the Law |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=901–11 |doi=10.1002/bsl.722 |pmid=17323344}}

Because an individual's scores may have important consequences for his or her future, the potential for harm if the test is used or administered incorrectly is considerable. The test can only be considered valid if administered by a suitably qualified and experienced clinician under controlled conditions.

There has been controversy over the use of the PCL-R by UK prison and secure psychiatric services, including its role in the government's administrative category of 'Dangerous and Severe Personality Disorder' (a separate older administrative category of 'psychopathic disorder' in the Mental Health Act was abolished in 2007). One leading forensic psychologist, while Deputy Chief at the Ministry of Justice, has argued that it has not lived up to claims that it could identify those who would not benefit from current treatments or those most likely to violently reoffend.{{Cite journal |last=Crighton |first=D |year=2009 |title=Uses and abuses of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist |journal=Evidence-Based Mental Health |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=33–36 |doi=10.1136/ebmh.12.2.33 |pmid=19395597 |s2cid=28269115}}

Several recent studies and very large-scale meta-analysis{{Cite journal |vauthors=Singh JP, Grann M, Fazel S |year=2011 |title=A comparative study of violence risk assessment tools: a systematic review and metaregression analysis of 68 studies involving 25,980 participants |journal=Clin Psychol Rev |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=499–513 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.009 |pmid=21255891}} have cast serious doubt on whether the PCL-R performs as well as other instruments, or better than chance. To the extent that it does perform better, it is unclear whether it is due to the PCL-R's inclusion of past offending history, rather than the personality trait scores that make it unique.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Yang M, Wong SC, Coid J |date=September 2010 |title=The efficacy of violence prediction: a meta-analytic comparison of nine risk assessment tools |journal=Psychology Bulletin |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=740–67 |citeseerx=10.1.1.404.4396 |doi=10.1037/a0020473 |pmid=20804235}}

In addition to the aforementioned report by Cooke and Michie that a three-factor structure may provide a better model than the two-factor structure, Hare's concept and checklist have faced other criticisms.

In 2010, there was controversy after it emerged that Hare had threatened legal action that stopped publication of a peer-reviewed article on the PCL-R. Hare alleged the article quoted or paraphrased him incorrectly. The article eventually appeared, three years later. It alleged that the checklist is wrongly viewed by many as the basic definition of psychopathy, yet it leaves out key factors, while also making criminality too central to the concept. The authors claimed this leads to problems in over-diagnosis and in the use of the checklist to secure convictions. Hare has since stated that he receives less than $35,000 a year from royalties associated with the checklist and its derivatives.{{Cite web |last=Minkel |first=JR |date=June 17, 2010 |title=Fear Review: Critique of Forensic Psychopathy Scale Delayed 3 Years by Threat of Lawsuit |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=critique-of-forensic-psychopathy-scale-delayed-by-lawsuit |website=Scientific America}}

Hare's concept has also been criticised as being only weakly applicable to real-world settings and tending towards tautology. It is also said to be vulnerable to "labeling effects", to be over-simplistic, reductionist, to embody fundamental attribution error, and not pay enough attention to context and the dynamic nature of human behavior.{{Cite journal |last=Walters |first=Glenn D. |year=2004 |title=The Trouble with Psychopathy as a General Theory of Crime |journal=International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=133–48 |doi=10.1177/0306624X03259472 |pmid=15070462 |s2cid=40939723}} It has been pointed out that half the criteria can also be signs of mania, hypomania, or frontal lobe dysfunction (e.g., glibness/superficial charm, grandiosity, poor behavioral controls, promiscuous sexual behavior, and irresponsibility).{{cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=DO |last2=Yeager |first2=CA |last3=Blake |first3=P |last4=Bard |first4=B |last5=Strenziok |first5=M |title=Ethics questions raised by the neuropsychiatric, neuropsychological, educational, developmental, and family characteristics of 18 juveniles awaiting execution in Texas. |journal=The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law |date=2004 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=408–429 |pmid=15704627}}

Some research suggests that ratings made using the PCL system depend on the personality of the person doing the rating, including how empathic they themselves are. One forensic researcher has suggested that future studies need to examine the class background, race, and philosophical beliefs of raters because they may not be aware of enacting biased judgments on people whom they do not readily empathize with.{{cite web |last1=Franklin |first1=Karen |title=Psychopathy: A Rorschach test for psychologists? {{!}} Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/witness/201104/psychopathy-rorschach-test-psychologists |website=www.psychologytoday.com |access-date=4 November 2022 |date=2011}}{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=A. K. |last2=Rufino |first2=K. A. |last3=Boccaccini |first3=M. T. |last4=Jackson |first4=R. L. |last5=Murrie |first5=D. C. |year=2011 |title=On Individual Differences in Person Perception: Raters' Personality Traits Relate to Their Psychopathy Checklist-Revised Scoring Tendencies |journal=Assessment |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=253–60 |doi=10.1177/1073191111402460 |pmid=21393315 |s2cid=206655518}} Further, a review which pooled various risk assessment instruments including the PCL, found that peer-reviewed studies for which the developer or translator of the instrument was an author (which in no case was disclosed in the journal article) were twice as likely to report positive predictive findings.{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Jay P |year=2013 |title=Authorship Bias in Violence Risk Assessment? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=9 |page=e72484 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...872484S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0072484 |pmc=3759386 |pmid=24023744|doi-access=free }}

• Lawrence Bittaker was evaluated as 39/40.{{Cite web |title=The Devil's Children: The Dangers of Psychopaths |url=https://suzukisthoughts.blogspot.com/2019/09/the-devils-children-dangers-of.html |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=The Devil's Children}}
• Paul Bernardo was evaluated as 35/40, while Karla Homolka 5/40 (a malignant narcissist).{{Cite episode |title=The Psychopath Next Door |url=http://www.cbc.ca/player/Shows/ID/2618107281/ |access-date=April 24, 2015 |series=Doc Zone |series-link=Doc Zone |network=CBC Television |station=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |date=November 27, 2014 |season=2014–15 |number=7 |minutes=3 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406110620/http://www.cbc.ca/player/Shows/ID/2618107281/ |archive-date=April 6, 2015}}
• Dennis Rader was evaluated as 32/40{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N7rAPzULPpU |title=Criminal Psychologist Explains The Demented Mind Of The BTK Killer |date=2022-12-10 |last=BuzzFeed Unsolved Network |access-date=2025-02-23 |via=YouTube}}
• Ted Bundy was evaluated as 35/40 (according to the source).{{cite book |editor1-last=Patrick |editor1-first=Christopher J. |title=Handbook of Psychopathy |date=17 May 2018 |publisher=Guilford Publications |location=New York |isbn=9781462535132 |pages=576–580 |edition=Second |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QOZTDwAAQBAJ |access-date=5 November 2022 |language=en |chapter=23}}
• Jeffrey Dahmer was evaluated as 23/40.
• Brian Dugan was evaluated as 38/40.{{Cite web |title=Inside A Psychopath's Brain: The Sentencing Debate |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128116806 |access-date=2019-03-30 |website=NPR.org |language=en}}
• John Wayne Gacy was evaluated as 27/40.
• Charles Guiteau was evaluated as 37.5/40.{{cite book|last=Kiehl|first=Kent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bWvCAQAAQBAJ&q=37.5|title=The Psychopath Whisperer:The Science of Those Without Conscience|date=2014|chapter=3 |publisher=Crown/Archetype |isbn=978-0770435851 |location=New York City |author-link=Kent Kiehl}}
• Peter Lundin was evaluated as 39/40.{{Cite web |title=Den værste psykopat jeg har set |url=https://ekstrabladet.dk/112/article4422173.ece |website=ekstrabladet.dk|date=6 February 2001 }}{{Cite web |last=Søgaard |first=Jan |date=January 31, 2001 |title=Lundin stemplet som psykopat |url=https://www.bt.dk/content/item/644362 |website=www.bt.dk}}
• Brian David Mitchell was evaluated as 34/40.{{Cite web |title=Mitchell transcript: Star psychiatrist takes stand |url=https://archive.sltrib.com/article.php?id=50833290&itype=CMSID |access-date=2019-05-04 |website=The Salt Lake Tribune |language=en}}
• Clifford Olson was evaluated as 38/40.
• Stephen Farrow was evaluated as 31/40{{Cite news |date=2012-10-31 |title=Stephen Farrow 'the psychopath' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-20159704 |access-date=2024-10-12 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}
• Gary Ridgway, known as the Green River Killer, was evaluated at 19/40.
• Aileen Wuornos was evaluated as 32/40.
• Dwight York was evaluated as 39/40.Robinson, Matt. Attachments filed with the 2241 habeas corpus motion, April 27, 2006
• Daniel William Marsh was evaluated as 35.8/40.{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/daniel-marsh-double-murder-could-new-california-law-free-a-teen-killer-convicted-as-an-adult/ |title=COULD A NEW CALIFORNIA LAW FREE A TEEN KILLER CONVICTED AS AN ADULT FOR A BRUTAL DOUBLE HOMICIDE?|date=June 15, 2019|website=CBS News|first=Erin|last=Moriarty}}

• Actuarial tools in criminology
• Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale
• List of diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry
• Narcissism
• Psychopathic Personality Inventory

{{Reflist|30em}}

• {{Cite journal |last=Hare |first=Robert D. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412959537.n134 |title=Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised |journal=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4129-5189-0 |edition=2nd |location=Thousand Oaks California |doi=10.4135/9781412959537.n134 |access-date=2021-07-20|url-access=subscription }}
• {{Cite book |last=Paul |first=Babiak |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1091161786 |title=Snakes in Suits : When Psychopaths Go to Work |date=2019 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-269754-7 |oclc=1091161786}}
• {{Cite journal |last=Freckelton |first=Ian |date=2014-03-04 |title=The Psychopath Test: A Journey Through the Madness Industry |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2014.900803 |journal=Psychiatry, Psychology and Law |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=311–313 |doi=10.1080/13218719.2014.900803 |s2cid=144766299 |issn=1321-8719|url-access=subscription }}
• {{Cite journal |last=Hare |first=R. D. |year=1980 |title=A research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=111–120 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(80)90028-8}}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=C. D. |last2=Neumann |first2=C. S. |last3=Rogers |first3=R. |year=2004 |title=Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) in Offenders with Axis I Disorders |journal=Psychological Assessment |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=90–95 |doi=10.1037/1040-3590.16.1.90 |pmid=15023097|s2cid=44861556 }}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Vitacco |first1=M. J. |last2=Neumann |first2=C. S. |last3=Jackson |first3=R. |year=2005 |title=Testing a four-factor model of psychopathy and its association with ethnicity, gender, intelligence, and violence |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=466–76 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.466 |pmid=15982144}}
• {{Cite journal |last1=Vitacco |first1=M. J. |last2=Rogers |first2=R. |last3=Neumann |first3=C. S. |last4=Harrison |first4=K. |last5=Vincent |first5=G. |year=2005 |title=A comparison of factor models on the PCL-R with mentally disordered offenders: The development of a four factor model |journal=Criminal Justice and Behavior |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=526–545 |doi=10.1177/0093854805278414 |s2cid=73529203}}

• [http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/436/the-psychopath-test This American Life radio documentary on the PCL-R and its use]
• [https://psychology-tools.com/test/pcl-22 Online version of original Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-22)]
• [http://0eb.com/index_psychopath.html Online version of the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R)]
• [https://psychopathy.tiiny.site/ Online version of the full Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV)]

{{Psychopathy}}

Category:Checklists

Category:Psychopathy scales