Rosalind Franklin (rover)

In July 2018, the European Space Agency launched a public outreach campaign to choose a name for the rover.{{cite news |last=Reints |first=Renae |date=20 July 2018 |title=Want to Name the Next European Mars Rover? Here's Your Chance |url=http://fortune.com/2018/07/20/name-european-space-agency-exomars-rover/ |access-date=20 July 2018 |work=Fortune}} On 7 February 2019, the ExoMars rover was named Rosalind Franklin in honour of scientist Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958),{{Cite web |title=Name of British built Mars rover revealed |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/name-of-british-built-mars-rover-revealed |access-date=7 February 2019 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}} who made key contributions to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), viruses, coal, and graphite.{{cite web |title=The Rosalind Franklin Papers, The Holes in Coal: Research at BCURA and in Paris, 1942–1951 |url=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/KR/p-nid/186 |access-date=13 November 2011 |work=profiles.nlm.nih.gov}}

The Rosalind Franklin rover is an autonomous six-wheeled vehicle with mass approximately {{convert|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, about 60% more than NASA's 2004 Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity,{{Cite conference |url=http://mepag.jpl.nasa.gov/meeting/mar-09/09_ExoMars_Status_MEPAG_09_Final.pdf |title=ExoMars Status |conference=20th Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group Meeting. 3–4 March 2009. Arlington, Virginia. |publisher=European Space Agency |first1=J. L. |last1=Vego |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |access-date=15 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409170116/http://mepag.jpl.nasa.gov/meeting/mar-09/09_ExoMars_Status_MEPAG_09_Final.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2009 |df=dmy-all}} but about one third that of NASA's two most recent rovers: Curiosity rover, launched in 2011, and Perseverance rover, launched in 2020. ESA returned to this original rover design after NASA descoped its involvement in a joint rover mission that was studied from 2009 to 2012.

Science instruments are dovided into two groups: the Pasteur payload (on the rover) and the Humboldt payload (on the lander). The rover will carry a {{convert|2|m|ftin|adj=on}} sub-surface sampling drill and Analytical Laboratory Drawer (ALD), supporting the nine science instruments. The rover will search for biomolecules or biosignatures from past life.{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/45787-rover-surface-operations/ |title=Rover surface operations |publisher=European Space Agency |date=18 December 2012 |access-date=16 March 2012}}{{cite journal |title=Habitability on Early Mars and the Search for Biosignatures with the ExoMars Rover |journal=Astrobiology |first=Jorge L. |last=Vago |display-authors=etal |volume=17 |issue=6–7 |pages=471–510 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1089/ast.2016.1533 |pmid=31067287 |bibcode=2017AsBio..17..471V|pmc=5685153 }}{{cite press release |url=https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/content/press-info-exomars-status |title=Press Info: ExoMars Status |publisher=Thales Group |date=8 May 2012 |access-date=8 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010438/https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/content/press-info-exomars-status |archive-date=3 December 2013 |df=dmy-all}}{{cite web |url=http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/ExoMars/SEMSZIAMS7F_0.html |title=The ExoMars Instruments |publisher=European Space Agency |date=1 February 2008 |access-date=8 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026132118/http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/ExoMars/SEMSZIAMS7F_0.html |archive-date=26 October 2012}}{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17390576 |title=Europe still keen on Mars missions |work=BBC News |first=Jonathan |last=Amos |date=15 March 2012 |access-date=16 March 2012}}

File:ExoMars model at ILA 2006.jpg|ExoMars rover model at ILA 2006 in Berlin

File:Paris Air Show 2007-06-24 n18.jpg|A 1:4 model of the ExoMars rover at the ESA pavilion, 2007 International Paris Air Show at the Le Bourget airport

File:ExoMars prototype rover.jpg|An ExoMars prototype rover at the Royal Astronomical Society National Annual Meeting 2009 in Hatfield, England

File:Mars rover being tested near the Paranal Observatory.jpg|Bridget the rover, pictured here with Paranal Observatory in the background, 2013. ESA's ExoMars mission is acting as the reference mission for the trial

File:Cmglee Cambridge Science Festival 2015 ExoMars Rover.jpg|A prototype of the ExoMars Rover at the 2015 Cambridge Science Festival

Like all other martian rovers the ExoMars team also built a twin rover for Rosalind Franklin, known as the Ground Test Model (GTM), with the nickname Amalia. This test model borrows its name from Professor Amalia Ercoli Finzi, a renowned astrophysicist with broad experience in spaceflight dynamics. Amalia has so far demonstrated drilling soil samples down to 1.7 meters and operating all the instruments while sending scientific data to the Rover Operations Control Centre (ROCC), the operational hub that will orchestrate the roaming of the European-built rover on Mars. It is currently in a Mars terrain simulator at the ALTEC premises in Turin. Engineers are using the Amalia rover to recreate different scenarios and help them take decisions that will keep Rosalind safe in the challenging environment of Mars and to run risky operations, from driving around martian slopes seeking the best path for science operations to drilling and analyzing rocks.{{Cite web|url=https://scitechdaily.com/steady-driving-towards-launch-of-exomars-rover/|title=Steady Driving Towards Launch of ExoMars Rover|date=18 January 2022}}

The lead builder of the rover, the British division of Airbus Defence and Space, began procuring critical components in March 2014.{{cite news |first=Stephen |last=Clark |title=Facing funding gap, ExoMars rover is on schedule for now |date=3 March 2014 |url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1403/03exomars/ |work=Spaceflight Now |access-date=3 March 2014}} In December 2014, ESA member states approved the funding for the rover, to be sent on the second launch in 2018,{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/europe-agrees-fund-ariane-orbital-launcher-27307058 |title=Europe Agrees to Fund Ariane 6 Orbital Launcher |work=ABC News |agency=Associated Press |location=Berlin, Germany |date=2 December 2014 |access-date=2 December 2014 |quote=ESA's member states also approved funding to upgrade the smaller Vega launch vehicle, continue participating in the International Space Station, and proceed with the second part of its ExoMars mission.}} but insufficient funds had already started to threaten a launch delay until 2020.{{cite news |url=http://www.industryweek.com/emerging-technologies/money-troubles-may-delay-europe-russia-mars-mission |title=Money Troubles May Delay Europe-Russia Mars Mission |work=Industry Week |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=15 January 2016 |access-date=16 January 2016}} The wheels and suspension system were paid for by the Canadian Space Agency and were manufactured by MDA Corporation in Canada. Each wheel is {{cvt|25|cm|in}} in diameter.[http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2019/esa-prepares-for-2020-launch.html ESA Prepares for ExoMars Rover 2020 Launch at Mars and on Earth.] Emily Lakdawalla, The Planetary Society. 30 May 2019. Roscosmos will provide radioisotope heater units (RHU) for the rover to keep its electronic components warm at night.{{cite web |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/exomars_2016.html |title=ExoMars-2016 mission |website=Russianspaceweb.com |first=Anatoly |last=Zak |date=28 July 2016 |access-date=15 May 2018 |quote=In 2018, a Russian-built radioactive heat generator would be installed on the ExoMars rover, along with possible suit of Russian instruments.}} The rover was assembled by Airbus DS in the UK during 2018 and 2019.{{cite news |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/08/28/exomars-rover-leaves-british-factory-heads-for-testing-in-france/ |title=ExoMars rover leaves British factory, heads for testing in France |work=Spaceflight Now |date=August 28, 2019 |first=Stephen |last=Clark}}

By March 2013, the spacecraft was scheduled to launch in 2018 with a Mars landing in early 2019.{{cite news |date=14 March 2013 |title=Russia and Europe Team Up for Mars Missions |url=http://www.space.com/20240-mars-missions-russia-europe.html |access-date=24 January 2016 |work=Space.com}} Delays in European and Russian industrial activities and deliveries of scientific payloads forced the launch to be pushed back. In May 2016, ESA announced that the mission had been moved to the next available launch window of July 2020. ESA ministerial meetings in December 2016 reviewed mission issues including {{€|300 million|link=yes}} ExoMars funding and lessons learned from the ExoMars 2016 Schiaparelli mission, which had crashed after its atmospheric entry and parachute descent (the 2020 mission drawing on Schiaparelli heritage for elements of its entry, descent and landing systems).{{cite news |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/mars-lander-crash-complicates-follow-rover-2020 |title=Mars lander crash complicates follow-up rover in 2020 |journal=Science |first=Daniel |last=Clery |date=25 October 2016 |access-date=4 November 2016 |doi=10.1126/science.aal0303}} In March 2020, ESA delayed the launch to August–October 2022 due to parachute testing issues. This was later refined to a twelve-day launch window starting on 20 September until 1 October 2022, with a scheduled landing around 10 June 2023.{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-60782932 |title=Joint Europe-Russia Mars rover project is parked|publisher=BBC |date=17 March 2022 |access-date=17 March 2022}} The worsening diplomatic crisis over the Russian invasion of Ukraine cast doubt over a 2022 launch, due to the plan to use Russian launch and landing hardware.{{cite news |title=Europe's Mars rover 'very unlikely' to launch in 2022 |work=BBC News |date=28 February 2022 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-60566000 |access-date=1 March 2022}}{{cite web |title=European Space Agency claims joint Russian Mars rover probably won't launch this year |url=https://www.theverge.com/2022/2/28/22955003/esa-exomars-roscosmos-rosalind-franklin-rover-red-planet |website=The Verge |date=28 February 2022 |access-date=1 March 2022}} On 17 March 2022, the ESA announced that the launch of the rover has been suspended, with the earliest new date being sometime in late 2024.

In 2024, the mission received additional funding to restart the mission. The award went to Thales Alenia Space, with a launch scheduled for 2028. In May 2024, ESA signed an agreement with NASA to procure a US launch vehicle for the mission. In March 2025, ESA has selected SENER to develop several systems for the entry module (landing gear, mechanisms and adapter for separating the entry capsule, and UHF communications antennas) and for the rover (drill positioning and translation system, solar panel deployment mechanism, and X and UHF band antennas).{{Cite web |title=Sener will develop several critical systems for the Rosalind Franklin mission |url=https://www.group.sener/en/noticias/sener-will-develop-several-critical-systems-for-the-rosalind-franklin-mission/ |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Sener |language=en-US}} Later in March 2025, Airbus was selected to build the landing platform replacing the previously planned Russian lander.{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2025-03-29 |title=Airbus wins contract for ExoMars lander platform |url=https://spacenews.com/airbus-wins-contract-for-exomars-lander-platform/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}

The original plan called for a Russian launch vehicle, an ESA carrier module, and a Russian lander named Kazachok,{{cite news |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=21 March 2019 |title=Meet 'Kazachok': Landing Platform for ExoMars Rover Gets a Name - In 2021, Rosalind Franklin will roll off Kazachok onto the red dirt of Mars. |url=https://www.space.com/russian-exomars-lander-name-kazachok.html |access-date=21 March 2019 |work=Space.com}} that would deploy the rover to Mars' surface. After Kazachok landed, it would have extended a ramp to deploy the Rosalind Franklin rover to the surface. The lander would have remained stationary and started a two-year mission[https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC2018/EPSC2018-732.pdf ExoMars-2020 Surface Platform scientific investigation.] Daniel Rodionov, Lev Zelenyi, Oleg Korablev, Ilya Chuldov and Jorge Vago. EPSC Abstracts. Vol. 12, EPSC2018-732, European Planetary Science Congress 2018. to investigate the surface environment at the landing site.{{cite web |title=Exomars 2018 surface platform |url=http://exploration.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=56933 |access-date=14 March 2016 |publisher=European Space Agency}}

The new European landing platform replacing Kazachok will be built by Airbus in Stevenage, UK{{Cite news |last=Davis |first=Nicola |last2= |first2= |date=2025-03-29 |title=Europe’s first Mars rover will have UK-built lander |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2025/mar/29/europe-first-mars-rover-rosalind-franklin-esa-airbus-lander |access-date=2025-03-29 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}} and will use throttable braking engines provided by NASA.{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2024-05-17 |title=NASA and ESA complete agreement for cooperation on Mars rover mission |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-and-esa-complete-agreement-for-cooperation-on-mars-rover-mission/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}} The landing is planned for 2030. The platform will use a set of parachutes and retro rockets to slow down from 45m/s to less than 3m/s just before touchdown. After landing, two ramps will extend from opposite sides of the platform, offering a choice of routes to reach the surface.{{Cite web |title=ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover will have a European landing platform |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/ExoMars_Rosalind_Franklin_rover_will_have_a_European_landing_platform |access-date=2025-03-31 |website=www.esa.int |language=en}} Then the solar powered rover will begin a seven-month (218-sol) mission to search for the existence of past life on Mars. The Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), launched in 2016, will operate as the data-relay satellite of Rosalind Franklin and the lander.{{cite news |last=de Selding |first=Peter B. |date=3 October 2012 |title=U.S., Europe Won't Go It Alone in Mars Exploration |url=https://spacenews.com/us-europe-wont-go-it-alone-mars-exploration/ |access-date=28 January 2023 |work=Space News}}

The rover will have an americium power unit, called radioisotope heater unit (RHU), to heat the lander components. It will be the first usage of americium-241 on any spacecraft.{{cite journal |last1=Gibney |first1=Elizabeth |title=Mars rover mission will use pioneering nuclear power source |journal=Nature |date=21 May 2024 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-01487-6 |pmid=38773308 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01487-6 |access-date=22 May 2024 |language=en}} Americium-241 has a considerably longer half-life than plutonium-238, the radioisotope used to power NASA's Perseverance and Curiosity rovers. However, as a consequence, the power density of a ²⁴¹Am-based RHU is considerably lower than that of a ²³⁸Pu-based RHU.

The ExoMars mission requires the rover to be capable of driving across the Martian terrain at {{convert|70|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} per sol (Martian day) to enable it to meet its science objectives.{{cite conference |title=ExoMars Rover GNC Design and Development |conference=8th Int'l ESA Conference on Guidance & Navigation Control Systems. 5–10 June 2011. Carlsbad, Czech Republic. |first1=R. |last1=Lancaster |first2=N. |last2=Silva |first3=A. |last3=Davies |first4=J. |last4=Clemmet |year=2011}}{{cite conference |url=http://robotics.estec.esa.int/ASTRA/Astra2013/Papers/silva_2811301.pdf |title=ExoMars Rover Vehicle Mobility Functional Architecture and Key Design Drivers |conference=12th Symposium on Advanced Space Technologies in Robotics and Automation. 15–17 May 2013. Noordwijk, the Netherlands. |publisher=European Space Agency |first1=Nuno |last1=Silva |first2=Richard |last2=Lancaster |first3=Jim |last3=Clemmet |year=2013}} The rover is designed to operate for at least seven months and drive {{convert|4|km|mi|abbr=on}}, after landing.

Since the rover communicates with the ground controllers via the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), and the orbiter only passes over the rover approximately twice per sol, the ground controllers will not be able to actively guide the rover across the surface. The Rosalind Franklin rover is therefore designed to navigate autonomously across the Martian surface.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-14789230 |title=Smart UK navigation system for Mars rover |work=BBC News |first=Jonathan |last=Amos |date=5 September 2011}}{{cite news |url=http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/news2/astrium-s-mars-rover-demonstrates-autonomous-navigation-capability.html |title=Mars rover Bruno goes it alone |publisher=EADS Astrium |date=14 September 2011 |access-date=7 June 2013 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203101802/http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/news2/astrium-s-mars-rover-demonstrates-autonomous-navigation-capability.html |url-status=dead }} Two stereo camera pairs (NavCam and LocCam) allow the rover to build up a 3D map of the terrain,{{cite conference |url=http://robotics.estec.esa.int/ASTRA/Astra2013/Papers/Mcmanamon_2811324.pdf |title=ExoMars Rover Vehicle Perception System Architecture and Test Results |conference=12th Symposium on Advanced Space Technologies in Robotics and Automation. 15–17 May 2013. Noordwijk, the Netherlands. |publisher=European Space Agency |first1=Kevin |last1=McManamon |first2=Richard |last2=Lancaster |first3=Nuno |last3=Silva |year=2013}} which the navigation software then uses to assess the terrain around the rover so that it avoids obstacles and finds an efficient route to the ground controller specified destination.

On 27 March 2014, a "Mars Yard" was opened at Airbus Defence and Space in Stevenage, UK, to facilitate the development and testing of the rover's autonomous navigation system. The yard is {{convert|30|by|13|m|ft|abbr=on}} and contains {{convert|300|t|ST LT}} of sand and rocks designed to mimic the terrain of the Martian environment.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26670054 |title='Mars yard' to test European rover |work=BBC News |first=Jonathan |last=Amos |date=27 March 2014 |access-date=29 March 2014}}{{cite news |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Mars_yard_ready_for_Red_Planet_rover |title=Mars yard ready for Red Planet rover |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Markus |last=Bauer |date=27 March 2014 |access-date=29 March 2014}}

The rover will search for two types of subsurface life signatures, morphological and chemical. It will not analyse atmospheric samples,{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/46038-methane-on-mars/ |title=The enigma of methane on Mars |publisher=European Space Agency |date=2 May 2016 |access-date=13 January 2018}} and it has no dedicated meteorological station.{{cite journal |title=Infrared Spectrometer for ExoMars: A Mast-Mounted Instrument for the Rover |journal=Astrobiology |first1=Oleg I. |last1=Korablev |first2=Yurii |last2=Dobrolensky |first3=Nadezhda |last3=Evdokimova |first4=Anna A. |last4=Fedorova |first5=Ruslan O. |last5=Kuzmin |first6=Sergei N. |last6=Mantsevich |first7=Edward A. |last7=Cloutis |first8=John |last8=Carter |first9=Francois |last9=Poulet |first10=Jessica |last10=Flahaut |first11=Andrew |last11=Griffiths |first12=Matthew |last12=Gunn |first13=Nicole |last13=Schmitz |first14=Javier |last14=Martin-Torres |first15=Maria-Paz |last15=Zorzano |first16=Daniil S. |last16=Rodionov |first17=Jorge L. |last17=Vago |first18=Alexander V. |last18=Stepanov |first19=Andrei Yu. |last19=Titov |first20=Nikita A. |last20=Vyazovetsky |first21=Alexander Yu. |last21=Trokhimovskiy |first22=Alexander G. |last22=Sapgir |first23=Yurii K. |last23=Kalinnikov |first24=Yurii S. |last24=Ivanov |first25=Alexei A. |last25=Shapkin |first26=Andrei Yu. |last26=Ivanov |display-authors=1 |volume=17 |issue=6–7 |pages=542–564 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1089/ast.2016.1543 |pmid=28731817 |bibcode=2017AsBio..17..542K|hdl=10261/362142 |url=http://pure.aber.ac.uk/ws/files/19196048/ISEM_resubmitted_10.02.17.pdf }} The {{convert|26|kg|lb|abbr=on}} scientific payload comprises the following survey and analytical instruments:

{{main|PanCam}}

PanCam has been designed to perform digital terrain mapping for the rover and to search for morphological signatures of past biological activity preserved on the texture of surface rocks.{{cite journal |title=The PanCam Instrument for the ExoMars Rover |journal=Astrobiology |first=A. J. |last=Coates |display-authors=etal |volume=17 |issue=6–7 |pages=511–541 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1089/ast.2016.1548 |bibcode=2017AsBio..17..511C|doi-access=free |hdl=10023/10873 |hdl-access=free }} The PanCam Optical Bench (OB) mounted on the Rover mast includes two wide angle cameras (WACs) for multi-spectral stereoscopic panoramic imaging, and a high resolution camera (HRC) for high-resolution colour imaging.{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/45103-rover-instruments/ |title=The ExoMars Rover Instrument Suite: PanCam - the Panoramic Camera |publisher=European Space Agency |date=3 April 2013}}{{Cite journal |title=Context for the ESA ExoMars rover: the Panoramic Camera (PanCam) instrument |journal=International Journal of Astrobiology |first1=A. D. |last1=Griffiths |first2=A. J. |last2=Coates |first3=R. |last3=Jaumann |first4=H. |last4=Michaelis |first5=G. |last5=Paar |first6=D. |last6=Barnes |first7=J.-L. |last7=Josset |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=269–275 |year=2006 |doi=10.1017/S1473550406003387 |bibcode=2006IJAsB...5..269G |author8=Pancam Team|s2cid=18169420 |url=http://pure.aber.ac.uk/ws/files/4947883/PURE_97213.pdf }} PanCam will also support the scientific measurements of other instruments by taking high-resolution images of locations that are difficult to access, such as craters or rock walls, and by supporting the selection of the best sites to carry out exobiology studies. In addition to the OB, PanCam includes a calibration target (PCT), Fiducial Markers (FidMs) and Rover Inspection Mirror (RIM). The PCT's stained glass calibration targets will provide a UV-stable reflectance and colour reference for PanCam and ISEM, allowing for the generation of calibrated data products.{{Cite web |url=http://exomars.wales/projects/hardware/ |title=ExoMars Hardware |date=28 October 2017 |publisher=Aberystwyth University |access-date=2018-07-16 |language=en-GB}}

{{main|Infrared Spectrometer for ExoMars}}

The ISEM{{Cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/50692-inside-exomars-issue-8/ |title=Inside ExoMars |publisher=European Space Agency |issue=8 |date=August 2012 |access-date=4 August 2012}}{{cite web |title=ExoMars 2018 mission |url=http://www.iki.rssi.ru/eng/exomars2018.htm |publisher=Институт Космических Исследований Space Research Institute |access-date=15 March 2016}} optical box will be installed on the rover's mast, below PanCam's HRC, with an electronics box inside the Rover. It will be used to assess bulk mineralogy characterization and remote identification of water-related minerals. Working with PanCam, ISEM will contribute to the selection of suitable samples for further analysis by the other instruments.

{{main|WISDOM (radar)}}

WISDOM is a ground-penetrating radar that will explore the subsurface of Mars to identify layering and help select interesting buried formations from which to collect samples for analysis.{{Cite journal |title=WISDOM: An UHF GPR on the Exomars Mission |journal=Proceedings of the American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2006 |volume=51 |pages=1218 |first1=C. |last1=Corbel |first2=S. |last2=Hamram |first3=R. |last3=Ney |first4=D. |last4=Plettemeier |first5=F. |last5=Dolon |first6=A. |last6=Jeangeot |first7=V. |last7=Ciarletti |first8=J. |last8=Berthelier |date=December 2006 |id=P51D–1218 |bibcode=2006AGUFM.P51D1218C}}{{cite journal |title=The WISDOM Radar: Unveiling the Subsurface Beneath the ExoMars Rover and Identifying the Best Locations for Drilling |journal=Astrobiology |first=Valérie |last=Ciarletti |display-authors=etal |volume=17 |issue=6–7 |pages=565–584 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1089/ast.2016.1532 |bibcode=2017AsBio..17..565C|doi-access=free |pmc=5568567 }} It can transmit and receive signals using two Vivaldi-antennas mounted on the aft section of the rover, with electronics inside the Rover. Electromagnetic waves penetrating into the ground are reflected at places where there is a sudden transition in the electrical parameters of the soil. By studying these reflections it is possible to construct a stratigraphic map of the subsurface and identify underground targets down to {{convert|2|to|3|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in depth, comparable to the {{nowrap|2 m}} reach of the rover's drill. These data, combined with those produced by the other survey instruments and by the analyses carried out on previously collected samples, will be used to support drilling activities.{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/45103-rover-instruments/?fbodylongid=2128 |title=The ExoMars Rover Instrument Suite: WISDOM - Water Ice and Subsurface Deposit Observation on Mars |publisher=European Space Agency |date=3 April 2013}}

{{main|ADRON-RM}}

Adron-RM is a neutron spectrometer to search for subsurface water ice and hydrated minerals.{{cite web |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/exomars_2016.html |title=The ExoMars Project |work=RussianSpaceWeb.com |access-date=22 October 2013}} It is housed inside the Rover and will be used in combination with the WISDOM ground-penetrating radar to study the subsurface beneath the rover and to search for optimal sites for drilling and sample collection.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

{{main|CLUPI}}

CLUPI, mounted on the drill box, will visually study rock targets at close range ({{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on|disp=x|/}}) with sub-millimetre resolution. This instrument will also investigate the fines produced during drilling operations, and image samples collected by the drill. CLUPI has variable focusing and can obtain high-resolution images at longer distances. The CLUPI imaging unit is complemented by two mirrors and a calibration target.

{{main|Mars Multispectral Imager for Subsurface Studies}}

Ma_MISS is an infrared spectrometer located inside the core drill.{{cite journal |title=Ma_MISS on ExoMars: Mineralogical Characterization of the Martian Subsurface |journal=Astrobiology |first=Maria Cristina |last=De Sanctis |display-authors=etal |volume=17 |issue=6–7 |pages=612–620 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1089/ast.2016.1541 |bibcode=2017AsBio..17..612D}} Ma_MISS will observe the lateral wall of the borehole created by the drill to study the subsurface stratigraphy, to understand the distribution and state of water-related minerals, and to characterise the geophysical environment. The analyses of unexposed material by Ma_MISS, together with data obtained with the spectrometers located inside the rover, will be crucial for the unambiguous interpretation of the original conditions of Martian rock formation.{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/45103-rover-instruments/?fbodylongid=2133 |title=The ExoMars Rover Instrument Suite: Ma_MISS - Mars Multispectral Imager for Subsurface Studies |publisher=European Space Agency |date=3 April 2013}} The composition of the regolith and crustal rocks provides important information about the geologic evolution of the near-surface crust, the evolution of the atmosphere and climate, and the existence of past life.

{{main|MicrOmega-IR}}

MicrOmega is an infrared hyperspectral microscope housed within the Rover's ALD that can analyse the powder material derived from crushing samples collected by the core drill.{{cite journal |title=Infrared Spectrometer for ExoMars: A Mast-Mounted Instrument for the Rover |journal=Astrobiology |first=Oleg I. |last=Korablev |display-authors=etal |volume=17 |issue=6–7 |pages=542–564 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1089/ast.2016.1543 |pmid=28731817 |bibcode=2017AsBio..17..542K|hdl=10261/362142 |url=http://pure.aber.ac.uk/ws/files/19196048/ISEM_resubmitted_10.02.17.pdf }} Its objective is to study mineral grain assemblages in detail to try to unravel their geological origin, structure, and composition. These data will be vital for interpreting past and present geological processes and environments on Mars. Because MicrOmega is an imaging instrument, it can also be used to identify grains that are particularly interesting, and assign them as targets for Raman and MOMA-LDMS observations.

{{main|Raman Laser Spectrometer}}

RLS is a Raman spectrometer housed within the ALD that will provide geological and mineralogical context information complementary to that obtained by MicrOmega. It is a very fast and useful technique employed to identify mineral phases produced by water-related processes.{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/45103-rover-instruments/?fbodylongid=2130 |title=The ExoMars Rover Instrument Suite: RLS - Raman Spectrometer |publisher=European Space Agency |date=3 April 2013}}{{Cite journal |title=Raman spectroscopy breaking terrestrial barriers! |journal=Journal of Raman Spectroscopy |first1=J. |last1=Popp |first2=M. |last2=Schmitt |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=18–21 |year=2006 |doi=10.1002/jrs.1198 |bibcode=2004JRSp...35..429P}}{{Cite journal |url=http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/36075/1/Raman_Spectroscopy_Europe.pdf |title=Raman spectroscopy goes to Mars |journal=Spectroscopy Europe |first1=Fernando |last1=Rull Pérez |first2=Jesus |last2=Martinez-Frias |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=18–21 |year=2006}} It will help to identify organic compounds and search for life by identifying the mineral products and indicators of biologic activities (biosignatures).

{{main|Mars Organic Molecule Analyzer}}

MOMA is the rover's largest instrument, housed within the ALD. It will conduct a broad-range, very-high sensitivity search for organic molecules in the collected sample. It includes two different ways for extracting organics: laser desorption and thermal volatilisation, followed by separation using four GC-MS columns. The identification of the evolved organic molecules is performed with an ion trap mass spectrometer. The Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research is leading the development. International partners include NASA.{{cite news |url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1211/21exomars/ |title=European states accept Russia as ExoMars partner |work=Spaceflight Now |first=Stephen |last=Clark |date=21 November 2012}} The mass spectrometer is provided from the Goddard Space Flight Center, while the GC is provided by the two French institutes LISA and LATMOS. The UV-Laser is being developed by the Laser Zentrum Hannover.{{cite journal |doi=10.1089/ast.2016.1551 |pmid=31067288 |title=The Mars Organic Molecule Analyzer (MOMA) Instrument: Characterization of Organic Material in Martian Sediments |journal=Astrobiology |volume=17 |issue=6–7 |pages=655–685 |year=2017 |last1=Goesmann |first1=Fred |last2=Brinckerhoff |first2=William B. |last3=Raulin |first3=François |last4=Goetz |first4=Walter |last5=Danell |first5=Ryan M. |last6=Getty |first6=Stephanie A. |last7=Siljeström |first7=Sandra |last8=Mißbach |first8=Helge |last9=Steininger |first9=Harald| last10 = Arevalo| first10 = Ricardo D. |last11=Buch |first11=Arnaud |last12=Freissinet |first12=Caroline |last13=Grubisic |first13=Andrej |last14=Meierhenrich |first14=Uwe J. |last15=Pinnick |first15=Veronica T. |last16=Stalport |first16=Fabien |last17=Szopa |first17=Cyril |last18=Vago |first18=Jorge L. |last19=Lindner |first19=Robert| last20 = Schulte| first20 = Mitchell D. |last21=Brucato |first21=John Robert |last22=Glavin |first22=Daniel P. |last23=Grand |first23=Noel |last24=Li |first24=Xiang |last25=Van Amerom |first25=Friso H. W. |last26=The Moma Science Team |bibcode=2017AsBio..17..655G|pmc=5685156 }}

Sampling from beneath the Martian surface with the intent to reach and analyze material unaltered or minimally affected by cosmic radiation is the strongest advantage of Rosalind Franklin. The ExoMars core drill was fabricated in Italy with heritage from the earlier DeeDri development, and incorporates the Ma_MISS instrument (see above).{{cite journal |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Proceds/2001_MA_MISS.pdf |title=Ma_MISS: Mars Multispectral Imager for Subsurface Studies |journal=Advances in Space Research |first1=A. |last1=Coradini |first2=G. |last2=Piccioni |first3=S. |last3=Amici |first4=R. |last4=Bianchi |first5=F. |last5=Capaccioni |first6=M. T. |last6=Capria |first7=M. C. |last7=De Sanctis |first8=A. M. |last8=Di Lellis |first9=S. |last9=Espinasse |first10=C. |last10=Federico |first11=S. |last11=Fonti |first12=G. |last12=Arnold |first13=S. K. |last13=Atreya |first14=T. |last14=Owen |first15=M. |last15=Blecka |first16=A. |last16=Bini |first17=M. |last17=Cosi |first18=S. |last18=Pieri |first19=M. |last19=Tacconi |display-authors=1 |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=1203–1208 |date=January 2001 |doi=10.1016/S0273-1177(01)00283-6 |bibcode=2001AdSpR..28.1203C}} It is designed to acquire soil samples down to a maximum depth of {{convert|2|m|ftin}} in a variety of soil types. The drill will acquire a core sample {{convert|1|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} in diameter by {{convert|3|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} in length, extract it and deliver it to the sample container of the ALD's Core Sample Transport Mechanism (CSTM). The CSTM drawer is then closed and the sample dropped into a crushing station. The resulting powder is fed by a dosing station into receptacles on the ALD's sample carousel: either the refillable container - for examination by MicrOmega, RLS and MOMA-LDMS - or a MOMA-GC oven. The system will complete experiment cycles and at least two vertical surveys down to 2 m (with four sample acquisitions each). This means that a minimum number of 17 samples shall be acquired and delivered by the drill for subsequent analysis.{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/43611-rover-drill/ |title=The ExoMars drill unit |publisher=European Space Agency |date=13 July 2012}}{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/mars/43612-rover-sample-handling/ |title=Sample Preparation and Distribution System (SPDS) |publisher=European Space Agency |date=6 February 2013}}

File:Urey-exomars PIA09174.jpg

The proposed payload has changed several times. The last major change was after the program switched from the larger rover concept back to the previous {{convert|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}} rover design in 2012.

• Mars X-Ray Diffractometer (Mars-XRD) - Powder diffraction of X-rays would have determined the composition of crystalline minerals.{{Cite journal |url=http://www2.fkf.mpg.de/xray/CPD_Newsletter/cpd30.pdf |title=X-ray Powder Diffraction on the Red Planet |journal=International Union of Crystallography Commission on Powder Diffraction Newsletter |first1=Arno |last1=Wielders |first2=Rob |last2=Delhez |issue=30 |pages=6–7 |date=June 2005 |access-date=30 November 2013 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514001512/http://www.fkf.mpg.de/xray/CPD_Newsletter/cpd30.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{Cite journal |url=http://www2.fkf.mpg.de/xray/CPD_Newsletter/cpd30.pdf |title=Mars-XRD: the X-ray Diffractometer for Rock and Soil Analysis on Mars in 2011 |journal=International Union of Crystallography Commission on Powder Diffraction Newsletter |first1=Rob |last1=Delhez |first2=Lucia |last2=Marinangeli |first3=Sjerry |last3=van der Gaast |issue=30 |pages=7–10 |date=June 2005 |access-date=30 November 2013 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514001512/http://www.fkf.mpg.de/xray/CPD_Newsletter/cpd30.pdf |url-status=dead }} This instrument includes also an X-ray fluorescence capability that can provide useful atomic composition information.{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=45103&fbodylongid=2131 |title=The ExoMars Rover Instrument Suite: Mars-XRD diffractometer |publisher=European Space Agency |date=1 December 2011}} The identification of concentrations of carbonates, sulphides or other aqueous minerals may be indicative of a Martian [hydrothermal] system capable of preserving traces of life. In other words, it would have examined the past Martian environmental conditions, and more specifically the identification of conditions related to life.
• The Urey instrument was planned to search for organic compounds in Martian rocks and soils as evidence for past life and/or prebiotic chemistry. Starting with a hot water extraction, only soluble compounds are left for further analysis. Sublimation, and capillary electrophoresis makes it possible to identify amino acids. The detection would have been done by laser-induced fluorescence, a highly sensitive technique, capable of parts-per-trillion sensitivity. These measurements were to be made at a thousand times greater sensitivity than the Viking GCMS experiment.{{cite journal |title=Development and evaluation of a microdevice for amino acid biomarker detection and analysis on Mars |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |first1=Alison M. |last1=Skelley |first2=James R. |last2=Scherer |first3=Andrew D. |last3=Aubrey |first4=William H. |last4=Grover |first5=Robin H. C. |last5=Ivester |first6=Pascale |last6=Ehrenfreund |first7=Frank J. |last7=Grunthaner |first8=Jeffrey L. |last8=Bada |first9=Richard A. |last9=Mathies |display-authors=5 |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=1041–1046 |date=January 2005 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0406798102 |pmc=545824 |pmid=15657130 |bibcode=2005PNAS..102.1041S|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |title=The Urey Instrument: An Advanced In Situ Organic and Oxidant Detector for Mars Exploration |journal=Astrobiology |first1=Andrew D. |last1=Aubrey |first2=John H. |last2=Chalmers |first3=Jeffrey L. |last3=Bada |first4=Frank J. |last4=Grunthaner |first5=Xenia |last5=Amashukeli |first6=Peter |last6=Willis |first7=Alison M. |last7=Skelley |first8=Richard A. |last8=Mathies |last9=Quinn |first9=Richard C. |last10=Zent |first10=Aaron P. |last11=Ehrenfreund |first11=Pascale |last12=Amundson |first12=Ron |last13=Glavin |first13=Daniel P. |last14=Botta |first14=Oliver |last15=Barron |first15=Laurence |last16=Blaney |first16=Diana L. |last17=Clark |first17=Benton C. |last18=Coleman |first18=Max |last19=Hofmann |first19=Beda A. |last20=Josset |first20=Jean-Luc |last21=Rettberg |first21=Petra |last22=Ride |first22=Sally |last23=Robert |first23=François |last24=Sephton |first24=Mark A. |last25=Yen |first25=Albert |display-authors=5 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=583–595 |date=June 2008 |doi=10.1089/ast.2007.0169 |bibcode=2008AsBio...8..583K |pmid=18680409}}
• Miniaturised Mössbauer Spectrometer (MIMOS-II) provides the mineralogical composition of iron-bearing surface rocks, sediments and soils. Their identification was to aid in understanding water and climate evolution and search for biomediated iron-sulfides and magnetites, which could provide evidence for former life on Mars.
• The Life Marker Chip (LMC) was for some time part of the planned payload. This instrument was intended to use a surfactant solution to extract organic matter from samples of martian rock and soil, then detect the presence of specific organic compounds using an antibody-based assay.{{cite conference |chapter=The life marker chip for the Exomars mission |conference=2011 ICO International Conference on Information Photonics. 18–20 May 2011. Ottawa, Ontario. |first1=A. |last1=Leinse |first2=H. |last2=Leeuwis |first3=A. |last3=Prak |first4=R. G. |last4=Heideman |first5=A. |last5=Borst |title=2011 ICO International Conference on Information Photonics |year=2011 |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1109/ICO-IP.2011.5953740 |isbn=978-1-61284-315-5}}{{cite journal |title=In situ biomarkers and the Life Marker Chip |journal=Astronomy & Geophysics |first=Zita |last=Martins |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=1.34–1.35 |year=2011 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-4004.2011.52134.x |bibcode=2011A&G....52a..34M|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |title=Development status of the life marker chip instrument for ExoMars |journal=Planetary and Space Science |first1=Mark R. |last1=Sims |first2=David C. |last2=Cullen |first3=Catherine S. |last3=Rix |first4=Alan |last4=Buckley |first5=Mariliza |last5=Derveni |first6=Daniel |last6=Evans |first7=Luis Miguel |last7=García-Con |first8=Andrew |last8=Rhodes |last9=Rato |first9=Carla C. |last10=Stefinovic |first10=Marijan |last11=Sephton |first11=Mark A. |last12=Court |first12=Richard W. |last13=Bulloch |first13=Christopher |last14=Kitchingman |first14=Ian |last15=Ali |first15=Zeshan |last16=Pullan |first16=Derek |last17=Holt |first17=John |last18=Blake |first18=Oliver |last19=Sykes |first19=Jonathan |last20=Samara-Ratna |first20=Piyal |last21=Canali |first21=Massimiliano |last22=Borst |first22=Guus |last23=Leeuwis |first23=Henk |last24=Prak |first24=Albert |last25=Norfini |first25=Aleandro |last26=Geraci |first26=Ennio |last27=Tavanti |first27=Marco |last28=Brucato |first28=John |last29=Holm |first29=Nils |display-authors=5 |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=129–137 |date=November 2012 |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2012.04.007 |bibcode=2012P&SS...72..129S}}
• Mars Infrared Mapper (MIMA), a Fourier IR spectrometer operating in the 2-25 μm range that was to be mounted on the rover's mast to investigate the martian surface and atmosphere.{{cite book |bibcode=2007SPIE.6744E..1QB |chapter=MIMA, a miniaturized Fourier infrared spectrometer for Mars ground exploration: Part I. Concept and expected performance |first1=G. |last1=Bellucci |first2=B. |last2=Saggin |first3=S. |last3=Fonti |first4=D. |last4=Biondi |first5=P. |last5=Cerulli |first6=M. |last6=De Luca |first7=F. |last7=Altieri |first8=A. |last8=Mattana |first9=E. |last9=Alberti |first10=G. |last10=Marzo |first11=L. |last11=Zasova |volume=6744 |pages=67441Q |date=2007 |title=Sensors, Systems, and Next-Generation Satellites XI |journal=|editor1-first=Roland |editor1-last=Meynart |editor2-first=Steven P. |editor2-last=Neeck |editor3-first=Haruhisa |editor3-last=Shimoda |editor4-first=Shahid |editor4-last=Habib |doi=10.1117/12.737896 |s2cid=128494222 |display-authors=3}}

{{main|ExoMars#Landing site selection}}After a review by an ESA-appointed panel, a short list of four sites (Mawrth Vallis, Oxia Planum, Hypanis Vallis, Aram Dorsum) was formally recommended in October 2014 for further detailed analysis.{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=54708 |title=Four candidate landing sites for ExoMars 2018 |publisher=European Space Agency |first1=Markus |last1=Bauer |first2=Jorge |last2=Vago |date=1 October 2014 |access-date=20 April 2017}}{{cite web |url=http://exploration.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=54707 |title=Recommendation for the Narrowing of ExoMars 2018 Landing Sites |publisher=European Space Agency |date=1 October 2014 |access-date=1 October 2014}} These landing sites exhibit evidence of a complex aqueous history in the past.{{cite journal |title=The ADRON-RM Instrument Onboard the ExoMars Rover |journal=Astrobiology |first1=I. G. |last1=Mitrofanov |display-authors=etal |volume=17 |issue=6–7 |pages=585–594 |date=July 2017 |doi=10.1089/ast.2016.1566 |pmid=28731818 |bibcode=2017AsBio..17..585M}}

On 21 October 2015, Oxia Planum was chosen as the preferred landing site for the rover, with Aram Dorsum and Mawrth Vallis as backup options.{{cite news |url=http://www.universetoday.com/123018/scientists-want-exomars-rover-to-land-at-oxia-planum/ |title=Scientists Want ExoMars Rover to Land at Oxia Planum |work=Universe Today |last=Atkinson |first=Nancy |date=21 October 2015 |access-date=22 October 2015}} In March 2017 the Landing Site Selection Working Group narrowed the choice to Oxia Planum and Mawrth Vallis,{{Cite web |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/ExoMars/Final_two_ExoMars_landing_sites_chosen |title=Final two ExoMars landing sites chosen |publisher=European Space Agency |first1=Markus |last1=Bauer |first2=Jorge |last2=Vago |date=28 March 2017 |access-date=2018-09-08 |archive-date=1 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401054707/http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/ExoMars/Final_two_ExoMars_landing_sites_chosen |url-status=dead }} and in November 2018, Oxia Planum was once again chosen, pending sign-off by the heads of the European and Russian space agencies.{{cite web |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46153332 |title=ExoMars: Life-detecting robot to be sent to Oxia Planum |work=BBC News |date=9 November 2018 |access-date=12 March 2020}}

In August 2022, the Oxia Planum region was discovered to be rich in clays, which are formed in water-rich environments.{{Cite web |title=New water map of Mars will prove invaluable for future exploration |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/New_water_map_of_Mars_will_prove_invaluable_for_future_exploration |access-date=2025-03-28 |website=www.esa.int |language=en}} In March 2025, scientists have published the most detailed geological map of Oxia Planum ever in the Journal of Maps.{{Cite journal |last=Fawdon |first=Peter |last2=Orgel |first2=Csilla |last3=Adeli |first3=Solmaz |last4=Balme |first4=Matt |last5=Calef |first5=Fred J. |last6=Davis |first6=Joel M. |last7=Frigeri |first7=Alessandro |last8=Grindrod |first8=Peter |last9=Hauber |first9=Ernst |last10=Le Deit |first10=Laetitia |last11=Loizeau |first11=Damien |last12=Nass |first12=Andrea |last13=Quantin-Nataf |first13=Cathy |last14=Sefton-Nash |first14=Elliot |last15=Thomas |first15=Nick |date=2024-12-31 |title=The high-resolution map of Oxia Planum, Mars; the landing site of the ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover mission |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17445647.2024.2302361 |journal=Journal of Maps |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/17445647.2024.2302361 |issn=1744-5647|hdl=2164/23116 |hdl-access=free }} The map will be used by ESA to decide how the rover explores the area, interprets its surroundings, and collects scientific evidence.{{Cite web |title=Best geological map for a European rover on Mars |url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Best_geological_map_for_a_European_rover_on_Mars |access-date=2025-03-28 |website=www.esa.int |language=en}}

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| caption1 = Location of Oxia Planum

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| caption2 = Geological morphology of Oxia Planum, chosen for its potential to preserve biosignatures and its smooth surface

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{{Features and artificial objects on Mars}}

• {{annotated link|Astrobiology}}
• {{annotated link|Life on Mars}}
• List of missions to Mars
• {{annotated link|Mars 2020}}
• {{annotated link|Timeline of Solar System exploration}}
• List of European Space Agency programmes and missions

{{reflist}}

{{commons category|Rosalind Franklin (rover)}}

• [http://exploration.esa.int/mars/45084-exomars-rover/ ExoMars rover] at ESA.int
• [https://exomars.cnes.fr/en/EXOMARS/GP_rover_2018.htm ExoMars rover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806235236/https://exomars.cnes.fr/en/EXOMARS/GP_rover_2018.htm |date=6 August 2020 }} at CNES.fr
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20161111100104/http://mars.nasa.gov/programmissions/missions/future/esa-2020-exomars-rover/ ExoMars rover] at NASA.gov
• {{youTube|ZSAzWBz6rNY|Searching for Signs of Life on Mars}} by NASA/Goddard

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