Russification of Belarus

Following the partitions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century (1772, 1793, 1795), the Russian Empire gained control over a large part of Belarusian territory. This period saw the beginnings of a deeper Russification process, wherein the Russian authorities faced the challenge of integrating a region where the majority of the nobility and a significant proportion of the urban population, along with the Uniate clergy, predominantly spoke Polish, while approximately 90% of the rural populace retained Belarusian as their primary language.PhD thesis of Yuri B. Koryakov. Language Situation in Belarus and Typology of Language Situations. p. 22

File:Partitions of Poland.png in 1772, 1793 and 1795]]

In the context of the 17th through the early 20th centuries, Russification was more broadly conceptualized as the cultural assimilation aimed at consolidating the three principal East Slavic groups under the imperial Russian identity: the Great Russians (Russians), the Little Russians (Ukrainians), and the White Russians (Belarusians).{{Cite book |last=Bendin |first=Alexander |title=Проблемы этнической идентификации белорусов 60-х гг. XIX – начала XX вв. в современной историографии |publisher=Institute of Theology of Saints Methodius and Cyril, Belarusian State University |location=Minsk, Belarus |pages=19 |language=ru |trans-title=Problems of Ethnic Identification of Belarusians in the 1860s to Early 20th Century in Contemporary Historiography}}{{Cite journal |last=Реєнт |first=О.П. |title=Українсько-білоруські взаємини у XIX - на початку XX ст.: процес становлення |trans-title=Ukrainian-Belarusian relations in the 19th - early 20th century: the process of formation |journal=Український історичний журнал |language=uk |publisher=Київ: Інститут історії НАНУ, 2008 |pages=161–169}} The term "Russian language" in these policies typically referred to the Great Russian dialect, which was promoted as the primary literary and administrative standard. This period also saw the official recognition and occasional publication of Belarusian literature.{{cite web |title=Белорусский: история, сходство языками Европы и трудности перевода |url=https://www.ganc-chas.by/by/page/society/888926331/ |access-date=2023-11-26}}{{cite web |title=О русском языке в Белоруссии |url=https://moskvam.ru/publications/publication_860.html |access-date=2023-11-26 |pages=23}}File:Dialektologicheskaia Karta 1914 goda.jpeg

The terms "Belarusian people" and "White Ruthenia" ("White Rus'") were not widely known among the population. As the philologist and ethnographer Yefim Karsky wrote in 1903:

At present, the common people in Belarus do not know this name. When asked, "Who are you?" the commoner responds—Ruthenian [{{langx|ru|русскій|translit=russkiy|label=pre-reform Russian}}], and if he is a Catholic, he calls himself either a Catholic or a Pole; sometimes he might refer to his homeland as Lithuania, or simply say that he is "tutejszy"—local, naturally contrasting himself with someone who speaks Great Russian, as someone who has come to the western region.{{Cite book |last=Карский |first=Евфимий |title=Белорусы. Т. I. Введение в изучение языка и народной словесности |publisher=Типография Варшавского учебного округа |year=1903 |location=Warsaw, Russian Empire |pages=116 |language=ru |trans-title=Belarusians. Vol. I. Introduction to the Study of Language and Folk Literature}}

Russification efforts intensified under Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky. His successor, Konstantin Kaufman, continued these policies. The goal was to rebuild the West Russian ethnic consciousness among Orthodox Belarusians.{{Cite book |last=Bendin |first=Alexander |url=https://www.inst.by/basis/publ/publ-ethno.pdf |title=Проблемы этнической идентификации белорусов 60-х гг. XIX – начала XX вв. в современной историографии |publisher=Institute of Theology of Saints Methodius and Cyril, Belarusian State University |location=Minsk, Belarus |pages=20 |language=ru |trans-title=Problems of Ethnic Identification of Belarusians in the 1860s to Early 20th Century in Contemporary Historiography |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210045653/https://www.inst.by/basis/publ/publ-ethno.pdf |archive-date=2023-12-10}} West Russian ideologists viewed Kievan Rus’ as the common origin of Russian history, using this narrative to justify a restoration of historical continuity following the period of Polish-Lithuanian rule. As a result, they regarded Belarus as part of Western Russia rather than a separate nation, viewing it as an integral branch of the all-Russian people.{{Cite web |url=https://zapadrus.su/2012-04-11-14-59-43/2014-g/instrumenty-tsivilizatsionnoj-vojny/1176-zapadnorusizm-i-belorusskoe-gosudarstvo.html |title=Западнорусизм и белорусское государство |last=Шимов |first=Всеволод |website=Западная Русь |date=2012 |language=ru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821130347/https://zapadrus.su/2012-04-11-14-59-43/2014-g/instrumenty-tsivilizatsionnoj-vojny/1176-zapadnorusizm-i-belorusskoe-gosudarstvo.html |archive-date=2022-08-21}}

Implementation occurred through public and church parish education, as well as the pastoral service of the Russian Church, integrating confessional bonds that united people in their commitment to Orthodoxy with ethnic ties. This led to a heightened sense of all-Russian national identity among the populace, without excluding the consideration of regional peculiarities and linguistic characteristics as a means of integration in the Northwestern Krai.

After the November Uprising (1830–1831), the Russian authorities intensified measures to reduce Polish cultural influence in the region. One of the most significant steps was the transition of education at all levels in Belarus from Polish to Russian-language instruction.{{Cite book |last1=Панов |first1=С.В. |title=История Беларуси. Конец XVIII — начало XX в. |last2=Морозова |first2=С.В. |last3=Сосно |first3=В.А. |publisher=Издательский центр БГУ (Publishing Center of Belarusian State University (BSU)) |isbn=978-985-553-535-6 |location=Минск (Minsk) |publication-date=2018 |pages=40 |language=ru |trans-title=History of Belarus: Late 18th to Early 20th Century}} Historian Vyacheslav Nasevich described the Imperial University of Vilna as one of the "reactors" of the Polish national project, and its reorganization aimed to weaken Polish intellectual traditions while instilling loyalty to the Russian state and the Russian Orthodox Church.{{Cite book |last=Bitchanka |first=S. |url=https://elib.psu.by/bitstream/123456789/25931/5/2-10.pdf |title=КАНЦЭПТУАЛЬНЫЯ АСНОВЫ ІНТЭРПРЭТАЦЫІ ГІСТОРЫІ БЕЛАРУСІ І ДЗЯРЖАЎНАЯ ПАЛІТЫКА РАСІЙСКАЙ ІМПЕРЫІ Ў ГАЛІНЕ ГІСТАРЫЧНАЙ АДУКАЦЫІ Ў ДРУГОЙ І ТРЭЦЯЙ ЧВЭРЦЯХ XIX СТАГОДДЗЯ |publisher=Academy of Postgraduate Education |year=2020 |location=Minsk, Belarus |language=be |trans-title=CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE INTERPRETATION OF BELARUSIAN HISTORY AND THE STATE POLICY OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN THE FIELD OF HISTORICAL EDUCATION IN THE SECOND AND THIRD QUARTERS OF THE 19TH CENTURY |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221175534/https://elib.psu.by/bitstream/123456789/25931/5/2-10.pdf |archive-date=2023-12-21}} The university was exclusively for the nobility, as the education system was class-based, which restricted access to higher education for lower social groups.

By the late 19th century, Russian authorities had significantly expanded infrastructure in the Northwestern Krai as part of a broader strategy to integrate Belarusian territories into the empire. Industrial development, improved transportation networks, and agricultural reforms contributed to the region’s economic growth.PhD thesis of Yuri B. Koryakov. Language Situation in Belarus and Typology of Language Situations. p. 25 Unlike the Polish perception of Belarus as a peripheral region, the Russian administration regarded it as a key area for economic and political interests.

The active introduction of the Russian language in education and administration was part of the Empire’s modernization efforts. It gave Belarusians broader access to education and cultural participation.{{Cite book |last=Трещенок |first=Я. И. |title=История Беларуси. Досоветский период часть 1 |year=2003 |pages=124–125 |language=Russian |trans-title=History of Belarus. Pre-Soviet Period Part 1}} The population of the five Belarusian provinces grew from 3.3 million in 1863 to 6.5 million in 1897, driven by natural growth and infrastructural enhancements.PhD thesis of Yuri B. Koryakov. Language Situation in Belarus and Typology of Language Situations. p. 25 Urbanization progressed steadily, and literacy rates improved. Between 1860 and 1881, the number of schools in Belarus rose from 576 to 2185. This reflected a strategic effort to strengthen Russian educational and cultural influence.

This period also saw the growth of a distinct Belarusian national consciousness, influenced by socio-economic changes and cultural exchanges within the Empire.{{cite book |last1=Трещенок |first1=Я. И. |title=История Беларуси. Досоветский период часть 1 |date=2003 |pages=135–138 |language=ru |trans-title=History of Belarus. Pre-Soviet Period Part 1}} The expansion of education, increasing literacy rates, and the development of print media contributed to a greater awareness of Belarusian identity. These processes laid the foundation for the emergence of national movements in the early 20th century.

Interest in studying the language of the local population began to emerge in the academic community in the late 19th century. Izmail Sreznevsky and Alexander Potebnja considered Belarusian dialects to be part of the South Russian vernacular.{{cite book |last=Крывіцкі |first=А. А. |title=Асноўны масіў беларускіх гаворак |year=1994 |publisher= |location=Мінск |page=55 |language=be}} Most researchers at the time were quite skeptical about the prospects of the Belarusian language becoming institutionalized. As noted by the famous ethnographer and collector of Belarusian folklore, Pyotr Bessonov: "The Belarusian oral folk speech will never become a literary, written, and book language."PhD thesis of Yuri B. Koryakov. Language Situation in Belarus and Typology of Language Situations. p. 28

Despite initial skepticism, the late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a period of budding interest in Belarusian studies. This emerging field was dedicated to exploring the history, culture, traditions, and distinct characteristics of the Belarusian people. Early pioneers like Pavel Shpilevsky and Jan Czeczot began documenting Belarusian oral traditions and folklore, emphasizing the independent nature of the Belarusian language and its cultural heritage.{{Cite book |last1=Панов |first1=С.В. |title=История Беларуси. Конец XVIII — начало XX в. |last2=Морозова |first2=С.В. |last3=Сосно |first3=В.А. |publisher=Издательский центр БГУ (Publishing Center of Belarusian State University (BSU)) |year=2018 |isbn=978-985-553-535-6 |location=Минск (Minsk) |publication-date=2018 |pages=41 |language=ru |trans-title=History of Belarus: Late 18th to Early 20th Century}} Their contributions laid a solid foundation for subsequent research efforts in this field.

Yefim Karsky, considered the founder of Belarusian linguistics, conducted extensive research that culminated in the publication of his seminal three-volume work "The Belarusians" between 1903-1922.{{cite book |last1=Коряков |first1=Ю. Б. |title=Языковая ситуация в Белоруссии и типология языковых ситуаций |page=26 |language=ru}} This work included detailed studies on Belarusian dialects and featured his "Ethnographic Map of the Belarusian Tribe." Karsky's efforts significantly advanced the academic study of the Belarusian language and culture, highlighting its distinct identity within the broader context of Eastern European studies.{{Cite book |last1=Панов |first1=С.В. |title=История Беларуси. Конец XVIII — начало XX в. |last2=Морозова |first2=С.В. |last3=Сосно |first3=В.А. |publisher=Издательский центр БГУ (Publishing Center of Belarusian State University (BSU)) |isbn=978-985-553-535-6 |location=Минск (Minsk) |publication-date=2018 |pages=111–112 |language=ru |trans-title=History of Belarus: Late 18th to Early 20th Century}}File:Belarusians_1903.jpg, 1903. The author classified the territories of Western Polesia as part of the distribution area of the Little Russian dialect (Ukrainian language), but included significant territories of modern Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Russia, and Ukraine in the distribution area of Belarusian dialects.]]

In the 1920s, belarusization took place in the Byelorussian SSR, aiming to expand the use of the Belarusian language in socio-political and cultural life.{{cite book |chapter-url=https://brill.com/display/book/9783657791811/BP000018.xml?language=en |chapter=Conclusion. A Theoretical Framework for Belarusization |access-date=2023-11-26 | pages=245–261|doi=10.30965/9783657791811_010 |title=The Path to a Soviet Nation |date=2021 |last1=Marková |first1=Alena |isbn=978-3-657-79181-1 }} This occurred alongside territorial expansions of the republic. In 1924, lands that would become part of the future Mogilev and Vitebsk regions were transferred to the BSSR, and in 1926, the Gomel and Rechitsa okrugs.RSFSR. Central Executive Committee. Session (11). Collection of Resolutions and Orders of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the 11th Session and its Presidium. p.7{{Cite web |last=Довнар |first=Т. |title=Укрупнение БССР |trans-title=Enlargement of the BSSR |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38542177.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817213633/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38542177.pdf |archive-date=2021-08-17 |access-date=2021-05-31 |website=core.ac.uk |language=ru}} Most primary schools switched to Belarusian as the language of instruction. Higher education institutions gradually introduced it as well. A 1924 decree established the equality of the republic's four main languages: Belarusian, Russian, Yiddish, and Polish.{{Cite journal |last=Запруднік |first=Я. |year=1996 |title=Беларусь на гістарычных скрыжаваннях |trans-title=Belarus at Historical Crossroads |journal=Бацькаўшчына |language=be |pages=93–94}}

According to the 1926 census in the Byelorussian SSR, 80.6% of the population were Belarusians, followed by Jews (8.2%), Russians (7.7%), and Poles (2%).All-Union Census of 1926, Byelorussian Socialist Soviet Republic, Volume 10 Article 22 of the 1927 Byelorussian SSR Constitution declared Belarusian as the primary language for state, professional, and public institutions, initiating a broad belarusization in all spheres of life, including education where 92% of schools taught in Belarusian during the 1926/27 school year.PhD thesis of Yuri B. Koryakov. Language Situation in Belarus and Typology of Language Situations. p. 32 Similar trends were observed in nearby RSFSR territories like the Smolensk region, which hosted 99 Belarusian schools in the mid-1930s.{{Cite web |title=Белорусы на Смоленщине. Сайт Администрации Смоленской области. |trans-title=Belarusians in the Smolensk Region. Website of the Smolensk Region Administration. |url=http://admin-smolensk.ru/~websprav/history/raion/book/-B-.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123450/http://www.admin-smolensk.ru/~websprav/history/raion/book/-B-.htm |archive-date=2014-07-14 |access-date=2013-12-05 |language=ru}}

The phase of Belarusization eventually gave way to a renewed emphasis on Russification, aligning with Soviet policies that favored Russian linguistic dominance across the USSR.[http://countrystudies.us/belarus/7.htm Early Belorussian Nationalism] in [Helen Fedor, ed. Belarus: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995.][http://countrystudies.us/belarus/11.htm Stalin and Russification] in [Helen Fedor, ed. Belarus: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995.][https://belarusfeed.com/belarus-explained-belarusian-language/ Why Belarusians Don't Speak Their Native Language?] // BelarusFeedYuliya Brel. (University of Delaware) [https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/sites.udel.edu/dist/a/7158/files/2018/01/6-1dsju93.pdf The Failure of the Language Policy in Belarus.] New Visions for Public Affairs,

Volume 9, Spring 2017, pp. 59—74 Stalin believed that as a unified global socialist economy developed, there would emerge a sort of common language because nations would feel the need to have, alongside their national languages, one common international language.Atyk Azizyan, "On the Work of Joseph Stalin 'The National Question and Leninism'", 1949

Candidate of Philological Sciences Igor Klimov writes:

{{Blockquote|The Bolshevik state, in its unique historical experiment of creating a new society and a new human being, viewed language as an object of special manipulation aimed at achieving certain non-linguistic goals. A key aspect of these manipulations, starting from 1930, was to reinforce Russian influence in the literary language norms of other ethnicities of the USSR. This enhanced cultural homogeneity among the peoples of the Soviet empire, subdued their separatist aspirations, and facilitated their cultural and linguistic assimilation. From the 1930s, the Belarusian language became a victim of this policy, its further development being influenced not by internal necessity or actual usage, but by the internal dynamics of the Soviet state.{{cite book |last=Клімаў |first=І. |title=Два стандарты беларускай літаратурнай мовы |chapter=Мова і соцыўм (Terra Alba III) |location=Магілёў |year=2004 |language=Belarusian}}}}In 1958, a school reform was implemented, granting parents the right to choose the language of instruction and determine whether their children should learn the national language. As a result, the number of national schools and their student populations sharply declined.{{Cite book |last=Алпатов |first=В. |title=150 языков и политика: 1917—1997. Социолингвистические проблемы СССР и постсоветского пространства. |publisher=М., Ин-т востоковедения |year=1997 |pages=99 |language=ru |trans-title=150 Languages and Politics: 1917–1997. Sociolinguistic Issues of the USSR and Post-Soviet Space}}{{Cite book |last=Мікуліч |first=Т. |title=Мова і этнічная самасвядомасць |year=1996 |pages=95–96 |language=be |trans-title=Language and Ethnic Self-Awareness}} In 1990, the Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Belarus for Ideology, Alexander Kuzmin, recalled:

In 1958, there were eight Belarusian-language schools in Minsk. However, when the rule was introduced that parents could choose the language of instruction for their children, we received requests from the parents of only four first-graders asking for their children to be taught in Belarusian. As a result, all eight schools immediately switched to Russian.{{Cite web |title=БОЛЬШЕВИКИ НЕ СМОГЛИ НАВЯЗАТЬ БЕЛОРУСАМ МОВУ. А У НАЦИОНАЛИСТОВ ПОЛУЧИТСЯ? |url=https://iarex.ru/articles/86031.html |website=ИА REX |language=ru}}{{Cite web |title=Беларусы цяпер пераважна размаўляюць на рускай. Тлумачым, як і чаму так атрымалася і хто ў гэтым вінаваты |url=https://news.zerkalo.io/cellar/30961.html |website=Зеркало |date=January 25, 2023 |language=be}}

This led to a paradoxical situation at first glance: many national schools were more supported from above, sometimes out of inertia, while there was a movement from below towards switching to education in Russian (not excluding the study of the mother tongue as a subject).{{Cite book |last=Алпатов |first=В. |title=150 языков и политика: 1917—1997. Социолингвистические проблемы СССР и постсоветского пространства |pages=100 |language=ru |trans-title=150 Languages and Politics: 1917–1997. Sociolinguistic Issues of the USSR and Post-Soviet Space}}

File:Russification evidence.jpg, Belarus, 2011: old street sign in Belarusian language (right) replaced with new one in Russian language (left).]]

File:Russian and Belarusian Language Distribution in Belarus, 2019.png

Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko has significantly shaped the country's linguistic and cultural policies since coming to power in 1994, with a focus on aligning Belarusian identity more closely with Russian language and cultural norms during the 1990s.[https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/belarus-has-identity-crisis/ Belarus has an identity crisis] // openDemocracy[https://belarusdigest.com/story/author/vadzim-smok/ Vadzim Smok]. [https://belarusdigest.com/papers/belarusianidentity.pdf Belarusian Identity: the Impact of Lukashenka's Rule] // Analytical Paper. Ostrogorski Centre, BelarusDigest, 9 December 2013[https://novychas.by/hramadstva/nacyjanalnaja-katastrofa-na-tle-mjakkaj-belarusiza Нацыянальная катастрофа на тле мяккай беларусізацыі] // Novy Chas {{in lang|be}}[http://novychas.by/hramadstva/halounaja-bjada-belarusau-u-belarusi-mova Галоўная бяда беларусаў у Беларусі — мова] // Novy Chas {{in lang|be}}

In Minsk city for the 1994–1995 academic year, 58% of students in the first classes of elementary school were taught in the Belarusian language. After the beginning of Lukashenko's presidency in 1994, the number of these classes decreased. In 1999, only 5.3% of students in the first classes of elementary school were taught in the Belarusian language in Minsk.Антонава Т. Моўныя пытаньні ў Беларусі // Зьвязда, 10 красавіка 1999 №59 (23660), 4–5 pp. {{in lang|be}}

The 1999 census was the first to include a question about actual language use.{{Cite book |last=Ryazanova-Clarke |first=Lara |title=Russian Language Outside the Nation |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780748668465 |pages=83}} The census revealed that although 73.7% of the population identified Belarusian as their native language, only 36.7% spoke it at home.{{Cite web |title=Перепись-2019. Посмотрите, где больше всего говорят на роднай мове |url=https://www.alfabank.by/about/articles/main/perepis-2019-part1/}}{{Cite web |title=Белстат: для 61,2% белорусов родной язык - белорусский |date=10 September 2020 |url=https://www.belta.by/society/view/belstat-dlja-612-belorusov-rodnoj-jazyk-belorusskij-406281-2020/}} This indicated a decline in everyday use despite its official status.

In the early years of independence, there were efforts to promote Belarusian in education, media, and government.{{Cite book |last=Ryazanova-Clarke |first=Lara |title=Russian Language Outside the Nation |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780748668465 |pages=81}} These efforts initially showed progress. However, they began to wane after the 1995 referendum that made Russian a co-official language.

After 2014, President Alexander Lukashenko initiated a policy known as soft Belarusization.[https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-28246782 "Belarus leader switches to state language from Russian"], BBC, 10 July 2014{{Cite web |date=21 January 2020 |title=Belarus in the multipolar world: Lukashenka bets on himself |url=https://neweasterneurope.eu/2020/01/21/belarus-in-the-multipolar-world-lukashenka-bets-on-himself/ |website=New Eastern Europe - A bimonthly news magazine dedicated to Central and Eastern European affairs}}Ivan Prosokhin, "Soft Belarusization: (Re)building of Identity or “Border Reinforcement”?" {{doi|10.11649/ch.2019.005}} This policy aimed to gradually increase the presence of the Belarusian language and reduce the level of Russification in the country. This strategy marked a significant shift towards strengthening Belarusian cultural identity while still maintaining strong ties with Russia.File:Парад в Беларуси 2019 06.jpg at a military parade dedicated to the Independence Day of the Republic of Belarus, 2019]]In the academic year 2016-2017 near 128,000 students were taught in Belarusian language (13.3% of total).Марціновіч Я. [http://nn.by/?c=ar&i=191559 Моўная катастрофа: за 10 гадоў колькасць беларускамоўных школьнікаў скарацілася ўдвая] // Nasha Niva, 31 May 2017 {{in lang|be}} The vast majority of Belarusian-language schools located in rural areas that are gradually closed through the exodus of its population to the cities. Each year, there is a closure of about 100 small schools in Belarus, most of which use Belarusian language in teaching. There is a trend of transfer the students of these schools to Russian-language schools. Thus, there is a loss of students studying in Belarusian.[https://www.brestspring.com/design/print.php?year=2012&print=5808 Алег Трусаў: Скарачэнне беларускамоўных школ можа прывесці да выраджэння нацыі] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927040912/https://www.brestspring.com/design/print.php?year=2012&print=5808 |date=27 September 2020 }} // Берасьцейская вясна {{in lang|be}}

As for the cities, there are only seven Belarusian-language schools, six of which are in Minsk (in 2019). In other words, the capital city, regional and district centers of the Republic of Belarus has seven Belarusian-language schools in total:

1. Gymnasium № 4 (Kuntsaushchyna street, 18 – Minsk, Frunzyenski District)
2. Gymnasium № 9 (Siadykh street, 10 – Minsk, Pyershamayski District)
3. Gymnasium № 14 (Vasnyatsova street, 10 – Minsk, Zavodski District)
4. Gymnasium № 23 (Nezalezhnastsi Avenue, 45 – Minsk, Savyetski District)
5. Gymnasium № 28 (Rakasouski Avenue, 93 – Minsk, Leninsky District)
6. Secondary school № 60 (Karl Libkneht street, 82 – Minsk, Maskowski District)
7. Secondary school № 4 (Savetskaya street, 78 – Ivanava city)

In the 2020s, the Russification of Belarus intensified, largely driven by the political unrest after the 2020 presidential elections and Belarus's involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine. {{Cite web |title=Russification in the cultural sphere of Belarus 2022-2023 |date=26 December 2023 |url=https://penbelarus.org/en/2023/12/26/rusifikaczyya-belarusi-sfera-kultury.html}} Russia's support during these times resulted in strengthened bilateral cultural initiatives.

This period witnessed a surge in Russian cultural influence across various sectors in Belarus, including the arts, education, and media, highlighted by strategic placements of Russian cultural personnel and the proliferation of Russian cultural centers.

The isolation from European influences, exacerbated by geopolitical alignments, further cemented Belarus's cultural ties with Russia. Joint projects and initiatives between the two nations continued, with increased frequency of events such as joint museum exhibitions, theatrical collaborations, and educational exchanges. These collaborations have underscored a sustained and deepening integration of Belarus into the cultural orbit of Russia.

The Belarusian language, while recognized as the national language, is less utilized in everyday communication compared to Russian, and is not prestigious as a language of education and professional growth.{{Cite book |last=Гринберг |first=С. А. |title=ВЛИЯНИЕ БЕЛОРУССКО-РУССКОГО ДВУЯЗЫЧИЯ НА МИРОВОЗЗРЕНИЕ И НАЦИОНАЛЬНОЕ САМОСОЗНАНИЕ БЕЛОРУСОВ |publisher=Витебский государственный университет им. П.М. Машерова |pages=3 |language=ru |trans-title=INFLUENCE OF THE BILINGUALISM ON OUTLOOK AND NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS OF BELARUSIANS}} Despite its limited use in public life, Belarusian has a rich literary tradition and cultural presence, embodied by literary masterpieces from renowned authors like Vasil Bykaŭ and Uladzimir Karatkievich. Efforts continue to revive and promote the Belarusian language through various media including the historically significant newspaper "Nasha Niva" and modern internet platforms.

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The Russification of Belarus comprises several components:

• Russification of education
• Domination of the Russian language within education in Belarus
• Repressions of Belarusian elites standing on the positions of national independence and building a Belarusian state on the basis of Belarusian national attributes
• Codification of the Belarusian language to bring it closer to Russian
• Narkamaŭka
• Declaring Russian as the second official language, creating conditions for crowding out the Belarusian language
• Destruction or modification of national architectureСтрачаная спадчына. — Менск, 2003. С. 54. {{in lang|be}}Волкава В. Мінск 21 лютага 1918 г. вачыма нямецкага салдата (па матэрыялах газеты "Zeitung der 10. Armee") // Беларускі гістарычны часопіс. № 2, 2018. С. 11. {{in lang|be}}
• List of architectural monuments of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, destroyed by the authorities of the Russian Empire {{in lang|be}}
• List of historical and architectural monuments of Belarus, destroyed by the Moscow Patriarchate {{in lang|be}}
• Renaming of settlements, streets and other geographical objects in honor of Russian figures or according to Russian traditionСоркіна І. Палітыка царызму адносна гарадоў Беларусі ў кантэксце гістарычнай памяці і ідэнтычнасці гараджанаў // Трэці міжнародны кангрэс даследчыкаў Беларусі. Працоўныя матэрыялы. Том 3. 2014. С. 376. {{in lang|be}}Kapylou I., Lipnitskaya S. Current status and related problems of national toponyms standardization in the Republic of Belarus // Studia Białorutenistyczne. Nr. 8, 2014.
• The dominance of Russian television and Russian products in the media space of Belarus
• Lack of conditions for the use of the Belarusian language in business and documents workflow
• Religious suppression and forced conversion
• Synod of Polotsk

• 1772. After the first partition of Poland, part of the ethnic Belarusian lands became part of the Russian Empire.Арлоў У. Краіна Беларусь. Вялікае Княства Літоўскае. — KALLIGRAM, 2012. С. 330. Catherine II signed a decree according to which all governors of the annexed territories had to write their sentences, decrees and orders only in Russian.
• 1773. Catherine II signed another order "On the establishment of local courts", which once again provided for the mandatory use of exclusively Russian language in archives.Дакументы і матэрыялы па гісторыі Беларусі. Т. 2. — Менск, 1940.
• 1787. Catherine II decreed that religious books could be printed in the Russian Empire only in publishing houses subordinate to the Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, as a result of which Greek-Catholic printing houses were banned.Філатава А. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230102164655/http://www.belhistory.eu/category/2000-t-7-ssh-1/ Нацыянальнае пытанне і палітыка царскага ўраду ў Беларусі (канец XVIII — першая палова ХIХ ст.)] // Беларускі Гістарычны Агляд. Т. 7, Сш. 1, 2000.
• 1794. Kościuszko Uprising is crushed by Alexander Suvorov's troops, he receives 25,000 Belarusian serfs as a reward Швед В. {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20151020160251/http://kamunikat.fontel.net/www/czasopisy/almanach/07/07szved.htm Эвалюцыя расейскай урадавай палітыкі адносна земляў Беларусі (1772—1863 г.)]}} // Гістарычны Альманах. Том 7, 2002.
• 1831. After Emperor Nicholas I of Russia came to power, the November Uprising was suppressed. The Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia, Pyotr Valuyev, prepared a "Special Essay on Means of Russification of the Western Territory" (Russian. Очерк о средствах обрусения Западного края) Миллер А. И. Планы властей по усилению русского ассимиляторского потенциала в Западном крае // «Украинский вопрос» в политике властей и русском общественном мнении (вторая половина XIХ века). — СПб: Алетейя, 2000.)
• 1832. Mass liquidation of Greek Catholic and Basilian schools, which favored the Belarusian language and culture, was carried out. Strengthening control over education by the Russian Orthodox ChurchАрлоў У. Як беларусы змагаліся супраць расейскага панавання? // 100 пытанняў і адказаў з гісторыі Беларусі. — Менск, 1993. С. 51—52.File:Маскалізацыя (русіфікацыя). Стоўпцы. Касьцёл дамініканаў.jpg (on the left) before reconstruction, and after reconstruction (on the right) in the Russian Revival Architecture style.]]
• 1852. With the liquidation of the Greek Catholic Church, the mass destruction of Belarusian religious literature began. Joseph Semashko was a personal witness of the burning of 1,295 books found in Belarusian churches. In his memoirs, he proudly reports that over the next three years, two thousand volumes of books in the Belarusian language were burned by his order.Калубовіч А. Мова ў гісторыі беларускага пісьменства. Клыўлэнд, 1978. [http://pawet.net/library/history/bel_history/kalubovich/06/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0.html]Арлоў У., Сагановіч Г. [http://knihi.com/Uladzimir_Arlou/Dziesiac_viakou_bielaruskaj_historyi.html Дзесяць вякоў беларускай гісторыі]. — Менск, 1997.
• 1900. the Ministry of Education of Russia set the following task for all schools: "children of different nationalities receive a purely Russian orientation and prepare for complete fusion with the Russian nation" Арлоў У. Краіна Беларусь. Вялікае Княства Літоўскае. — KALLIGRAM, 2012. С. 327.
• 1914. Belarusian people weren't mentioned in the resolutions of the First Russian Congress of Peoples Education. In general, during the entire period of rule in Belarus, the Russian government didn't allow the opening of a single Belarusian school Лыч Л. [https://kamunikat.org/?pubid=50305 Русіфікацыя: царская, савецкая, прэзідэнцкая]. — Львоў, 2010. С. 19.
• 1948. Alesya Furs, an activist of the national liberation movement, was sentenced to 25 years in prison for displaying the Belarusian coat of arms Pahonia[https://web.archive.org/web/20170905001658/https://news.tut.by/society/556639.html Памерла беларуская патрыётка Алеся Фурс. У маладосці яна атрымала 25 гадоў лагера за "Пагоню"281]
• 1995. After Alexander Lukashenko came to power, the state symbols of Belarus - the white-red-white flag and the historic coat of arms of Pahonia were replaced with modified Soviet symbols, and the national anthem was also replaced. In addition, the Russian language received the status of the second state language (the Russian language is used in all educational institutions and in the mass media), according to UNESCO, the Belarusian language is in danger of disappearing.Навумчык С. [https://knihi.com/Siarhiej_Navumcyk/Dzievianosta_piaty.html#1 Дзевяноста пяты]. — Радыё Свабода, 2015. С. 10.

• Russification
• Belarusization
• Belarusian national revival
• Belarusian nationalism
• Trasianka
• Polonization
• Russification of Ukraine

{{reflist}}

{{Wikiquote}}

{{Commons}}

• [http://kamunikat.org/7951.html Ніна Баршчэўская. Русыфікацыя беларускае мовы ў асьвятленьні газэты «Беларус»] // kamunikat.org {{in lang|be}}
• [https://news.tut.by/culture/550660.html Павел Добровольский. Замки, храмы и ратуши. Кто, когда и зачем уничтожил исторический облик крупных городов Беларуси] // TUT.BY {{in lang|ru}}

{{Main|Bibliography of the history of Belarus and Byelorussia}}

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Category:Russification

Category:Social history of Belarus

Category:Anti-Belarusian sentiment

Category:Belarus–Russia relations